Introduction
Subjects and methods
Study population
Dietary assessment
Cardiometabolic outcome assessments
Covariates
Statistical analysis
Results
Subject characteristics
All (n = 2965) | Boys (n = 1445) | Girls (n = 1520) | |
---|---|---|---|
Maternal characteristics | |||
Maternal age (year) | 31.9 (21.8–39.8) | 31.9 (21.7–40.0) | 31.9 (21.9–39.6) |
Maternal BMI at enrollment (kg/m2) | 23.7 (19.0–35.2) | 23.4 (18.7–35.2) | 23.6 (19.0–36.0) |
Education level (%) | |||
Primary | 5.2 | 5.2 | 5.1 |
Secondary | 36.3 | 34.9 | 37.6 |
Higher | 58.5 | 59.9 | 57.3 |
Smoking during pregnancy (%) | |||
Never | 78.1 | 78.3 | 78.6 |
Until pregnancy was known | 10.3 | 8.9 | 10.9 |
Continued | 11.6 | 12.8 | 10.5 |
Child characteristics | |||
Girls (%) | 51.3 | – | – |
Dutch ethnicity (%) | 68.8 | 69.5 | 68.4 |
Gestational age at birth (wk) | 39.9 (1.8) | 39.9 (1.8) | 40.1 (1.8) |
Birth weight (g) | 3452 (569) | 3524 (576) | 3383 (555) |
Breastfeeding (%) | |||
Exclusive in the first 4 months | 31.4 | 31.8 | 31.0 |
Partial in the first 4 months | 60.7 | 60.6 | 60.9 |
Never | 7.9 | 7.6 | 8.1 |
Child characteristics at dietary measurement | |||
Age at FFQ (mo) | 12.9 (12.2–18.9) | 12.9 (12.2–19.1) | 12.9 (12.2–18.8) |
Total energy intake (kcal/day) | 1265 (678–2206) | 1316 (691–2210) | 1221 (652–2230) |
Protein intake (g/day) | |||
Total protein | 41.8 (12.6) | 42.9 (13.0) | 40.6 (12.2) |
Animal protein | 25.6 (10.2) | 26.9 (10.5) | 25.7 (9.8) |
Vegetable protein | 14.2 (5.6) | 15.5 (5.5) | 14.4 (5.7) |
Protein intake (E%) | |||
Total protein | 12.9 (2.4) | 12.9 (2.4) | 12.9 (2.4) |
Animal protein | 8.1 (2.4) | 8.1 (2.4) | 8.2 (2.4) |
Vegetable protein | 4.7 (1.4) | 4.7 (1.3) | 4.6 (1.5) |
Child characteristics at 6-year visit | |||
Age (year) | 5.9 (5.7–6.6) | 5.9 (5.6–6.6) | 5.9 (5.6–6.5) |
Screen time (h/day) | 1.3 (0.3–4.3) | 1.3 (0.3–4.8) | 1.2 (0.2–4.6) |
Participation in sports (%) | 44.2 | 43.0 | 45.5 |
Height (cm) | 118.2 (5.2) | 118.5 (5.1) | 117.9 (5.2) |
Weight (kg) | 22.4 (3.4) | 22.5 (3.4) | 21.7 (3.4) |
BMI (kg/m2) | 16.0 (1.6) | 16.0 (1.6) | 16.0 (1.7) |
Body fat percentage (%) | 23.5 (16.2–36.4) | 21.1 (15.7–33.5) | 25.6 (18.8–37.5) |
Systolic blood pressure (mmHg) | 102 (8) | 101 (8) | 102 (8) |
Diastolic blood pressure (mmHg) | 60 (7) | 60 (7) | 61 (6) |
HDL cholesterol (mmol/L) | 1.35 (0.31) | 1.36 (0.31) | 1.33 (0.30) |
Triglyceride levels (mmol/L) | 0.97 (0.40–2.36) | 0.96 (0.38–2.34) | 0.98 (0.44–2.47) |
Insulin levels (pmol/L) | 115 (18–398) | 119 (17–382) | 115 (19–432) |
Associations between total protein intake and cardiometabolic outcomes
BF % (SDS) | Insulin (SDS) | SBP (SDS) | DBP (SDS) | HDL-C (SDS) | Triglycerides (SDS) | Cardiometabolic risk factor score | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Whole group |
n = 2911 |
n = 1996 |
n = 2841 |
n = 2841 |
n = 2006 |
n = 2001 |
n = 1894 |
Protein intakea per 10 g/day |
0.04 (0.00, 0.08) | 0.02 (−0.03, 0.08) | 0.00 (−0.05, 0.05) | −0.04 (−0.09, 0.01) | 0.03 (−0.03, 0.09) | −0.07 (−0.13, −0.01) | −0.09 (−0.24, 0.05) |
Tertile 1 | Reference | Reference | Reference | Reference | Reference | Reference | Reference |
Tertile 2 | 0.03 (−0.04, 0.11) | 0.04 (−0.07, 0.15) | −0.08 (−0.17, 0.01) | −0.02 (−0.12, 0.06) | 0.05 (−0.05, 0.16) | −0.08 (−0.19, 0.03) | −0.12 (−0.39, 0.15) |
Tertile 3 |
0.08 (0.01, 0.16) | 0.01 (−0.10, −0.12) | −0.05 (−0.13, 0.04) | −0.09 (−0.18, −0.00) | 0.05 (−0.06, 0.16) | −0.14 (−0.24, −0.03) | −0.17 (−0.44, 0.10) |
P for trendb
|
0.03
| 0.22 | 0.32 |
0.04
| 0.35 |
0.01
| 0.21 |
Girls |
n = 1487 |
n = 980 |
n = 1426 |
n = 1457 |
n = 1457 |
n = 984 |
n = 982 |
Protein intakea per 10 g/day |
0.07 (0.02, 0.13) |
0.10 (0.01, 0.19) | 0.00 (−0.07, 0.07) | −0.03 (−0.10, 0.04) | 0.00 (−0.09, 0.09) | −0.01 (−0.10, 0.08) | 0.05 (−0.17, 0.27) |
Tertile 1 | Reference | Reference | Reference | Reference | Reference | Reference | Reference |
Tertile 2 | 0.10 (−0.01, 0.20) | 0.05 (−0.06, 0.25) | −0.05 (−0.17, 0.07) | 0.03 (−0.09, 0.15) | 0.02 (−0.13, 0.17) | 0.00 (−0.15, 0.15) | 0.10 (−0.27 0.48 |
Tertile 3 |
0.11 (0.01, 0.21) |
0.15 (0.00, 0.31) | −0.09 (−0.22, 0.03) | −0.10 (−0.22, 0.03) | 0.02 (−0.14, 0.17) | −0.02 (−0.17, 0.14) | 0.04 (−0.35, 0.43) |
P for trendb
|
0.03
|
<0.05
| 0.14 | 0.20 | 0.83 | 0.85 | 0.84 |
Boys |
n = 1422 |
n = 1016 |
n = 1381 |
n = 1384 |
n = 1384 |
n = 1017 |
n = 1013 |
Protein intakea per 10 g/day | 0.01 (−0.05, 0.07) | −0.05 (−0.13, 0.03) | −0.01 (−0.08, 0.06) | −0.04 (−0.11, 0.03) | 0.05 (−0.03, 0.13) | −0.12 (−0.20, −0.04) | −0.22 (−0.42, 0.02) |
Tertile 1 | Reference | Reference | Reference | Reference | Reference | Reference | Reference |
Tertile 2 | −0.05 (−0.16, 0.06) | 0.03 (−0.13, 0.17) | 0.11 (−0.23, 0.01) | −0.08 (−0.21, 0.05) | 0.06 (−0.10, 0.21) | −0.16 (−0.31, −0.01) | −0.36 (−0.74, 0.03) |
Tertile 3 | 0.04 (−0.07, 0.14) | −0.11 (−0.26, 0.03) | −0.03 (−0.15, 0.10) | −0.12 (−0.23, 0.00) | 0.11 (−0.04, 0.27) | −0.25 (−0.40, −0.10) | −0.40 (−0.77, −0.02) |
P for trendb
| 0.50 | 0.11 | 0.68 | 0.06 | 0.14 |
<0.01
|
0.02
|