Background
Methods
Participants
General data collection
Dietary assessment
Dietary pattern extraction
Food groups (Items) | Fruits and dairy products | Red meat and plant- based foods | Snacks and high-fat foods | Carbohydrate- rich foods | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
1 | Fresh fruits (cantaloupe, melon, watermelon, pear, apricot, cherry, apple, peach, nectarine, plum, fig, grape, kiwi, grapefruit, orange) | 0.685 | 0.330 | ||
2 | Fruit Juices (grapefruit juice, orange juice, apple juice, cantaloupe juice, canned fruit) | 0.608 | |||
3 | High fat dairy products (high fat milk, cocoa milk, strained yogurt, high fat yogurt, traditional ice cream, other ice creams) | 0.602 | |||
4 | Low fat dairy products (low fat milk, skim milk, low fat yogurt, doogh (traditional yogurt drink)) | 0.554 | |||
5 | Creamy dairy products (creamy cheese, creamy yogurt, cream, butter) | 0.396 | |||
6 | Olive products (fresh olive, olive oil) | 0.370 | 0.325 | ||
7 | Raw vegetables (lettuce, tomato, cucumber, leek, parsley, scallion, basil, carrot, raw spinach, bell pepper) | 0.594 | |||
8 | Whole cereals (barley, oatmeal, corn (all types)) | 0.499 | |||
9 | Nuts and seeds (peanuts, walnuts, almonds, pistachios, hazelnuts, sunflower seeds) | 0.484 | |||
10 | Onion, garlic and cabbage (raw onion, garlic, pepper (red and black), cabbage (all types) | 0.465 | |||
11 | Dried fruits (dried figs, raisins, dates, dried berries, dried apricots, dried peaches) | 0.451 | |||
12 | Red meats (beef, Lamb meat, minced lamb, sheep’s tongue, broth) | 0.406 | |||
13 | Legumes (lentil, pinto bean, pigeon pea, broad bean, mung bean, soybean) | 0.465 | 0.332 | ||
14 | Pickles and sauces (ketchup, traditional pickles, sour lemon juice) | 0.373 | 0.417 | ||
15 | Salt and salty snacks (salt, salty popcorn, chips) | 0.590 | |||
16 | Cakes and sweets (biscuit, cracker, tea cake, creamy cake, other cakes, sugar, tablet sugar, honey) | 0.587 | |||
17 | Organ Meats (tripe, sheep brain, leg of lamb, heart and liver of lamb, sausage) | 0.487 | |||
18 | Fats and oils (animal fat, mayonnaise, hydrogenated oil, cooking oils, margarine) | 0.466 | |||
19 | White meats (chicken, fish (all types), shrimp) | 0.447 | |||
20 | Traditional breads (Lavash, Barbari, Sangak, Taftoon) | 0.557 | |||
21 | Cooked vegetables (squash, stewed vegetables, eggplant, zucchini, celery, boiled carrot, fried onion, cooked spinach, mushroom, turnip) | 0.475 | |||
22 | Other cereals and starch sources (rice, pasta, potato, French fries, vermicelli, traditional vermicelli (Reshte)) | 0.420 | |||
23 | White breads (baguette bread, toast, wheat flour) | -0.313 | |||
24 | Cheese and whey (cheese (all types), traditional whey (Kashk)) | ||||
25 | Tea and coffee (tea (all types), coffee (all types)) | ||||
Variance explained (%) | 11.93 | 6.67 | 5.81 | 5.03 |
Statistical analysis
Results
variables | GDM (N = 306) | Healthy (N = 387) | p-value** |
---|---|---|---|
Age
| 32.7 ± 5.3 | 28.30 ± 5.4 |
< 0.001
|
Weight, pre-pregnancy
b
| 69.7 ± 12.4 | 63.4 ± 11.6 |
< 0.001
|
BMI, pre-pregnancy
b
| 27.3 ± 4.5 | 24.8 ± 4.2 |
< 0.001
|
Weight gain
b
| 9.1 ± 5.2 | 7.4 ± 4.8 |
< 0.001
|
Education
|
< 0.001
| ||
Illiterate or primary school | 44.2 % | 55.8 % | |
High school and diploma | 59.5 % | 40.5 % | |
College and university | 37.1 % | 62.9 % | |
Number of pregnancies
|
< 0.001
| ||
First | 30.1 % | 69.9 % | |
Second | 46.4 % | 53.6 % | |
Third and more | 53.5 % | 46.5 % | |
Gender of neonate
| |||
Male | 46.5 % | 53.5 % | 0.249 |
Female | 43.6 % | 56.4 % | |
Job
| |||
Housewife | 43.7 % | 56.3 % | 0.984 |
Employee | 43.7 % | 56.3 % | |
Self-employed | 46.2 % | 53.8 % | |
Socioeconomic status
| |||
Very low | 55.4 % | 44.6 % |
< 0.001
|
Lower medium | 27.4 % | 72.6 % | |
Medium | 53.1 % | 46.9 % | |
High | 20.0 % | 80.0 % | |
Active smoker
| |||
Yes | 51.6 % | 48.4 % | 0.242 |
No | 43.6 % | 56.4 % | |
Activity
| |||
None | 40.0 % | 60.0 % | |
Very low | 72.4 % | 27.6 % |
< 0.001
|
Low | 29.0 % | 71.0 % | |
Medium | 54.5 % | 45.5 % | |
Hard | 38.1 % | 61.9 % |
Fruits and dairy products | Red meat and plant- based foods | Snacks and high-fat foods | Carbohydrate-rich foods | |||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Q1 | Q4 | Q1 | Q4 | Q1 | Q4 | Q1 | Q4 | |
Age
| 30.5 ± 5.7 | 29.2 ± 5.3 | 29.5 ± 5.9 | 30.2 ± 5.6 | 31.4 ± 5.4 | 28.3 ± 5.8 | 29.8 ± 5.4 | 30.0 ± 5.6 |
P
*
|
0.010
| 0.255 |
< 0.001
| 0.615 | ||||
Weight pre- pregnancy
| 66.4 ± 13.1 | 66.1 ± 11.6 | 64.8 ± 11.3 | 66.9 ± 10.6 | 67.2 ± 11.8 | 63.2 ± 13.1 | 66.9 ± 12.1 | 66.6.1 ± 13.6 |
P
**
| 0.915 | 0.344 | 0.135 | 0.815 | ||||
BMI pre- pregnancy
| 25.6 ± 4.8 | 25.8 ± 4.4 | 25.9 ± 4.4 | 25.8 ± 4.6 | 25.8 ± 4.4 | 26.4 ± 4.5 | 25.8 ± 4.2 | 26.4 ± 4.9 |
P
**
| 0.996 | 0.844 | 0.178 | 0.235 | ||||
Weight gain
| 8.6 ± 5.1 | 8.1 ± 4.9 | 8.2 ± 5.1 | 8.0 ± 4.6 | 8.2 ± 4.6 | 8.2 ± 5.3 | 8.2 ± 5.2 | 8.1 ± 5.1 |
P
**
| 0.120 | 0.768 | 0.997 | 0.530 | ||||
Education
| ||||||||
Non or primary | 30.6 % | 19.8 % | 25.4 % | 26 % | 18 % | 35.3 % | 26.7 % | 31.4 % |
High school and diploma | 39.3 % | 43 % | 46.8 % | 38.7 % | 34.9 % | 42.2 % | 45.3 % | 37.8 % |
College and university | 30.1 % | 37.2 % | 27.7 % | 35.3 % | 47.1 % | 22.5 % | 27.9 % | 30.8 % |
p
***
|
0.061
| 0.086 |
< 0.001
| 0.202 | ||||
Number of pregnancies
| ||||||||
First | 33.1 % | 33.5 % | 29.7 % | 28.3 % | 24.3 % | 39.5 % | 32.9 % | 27.3 % |
Second | 32 % | 37.6 % | 32 % | 34.7 % | 37.6 % | 34.3 % | 30.6 % | 39.5 % |
Third and more | 34.9 % | 28.9 % | 38.4 % | 37 % | 38.2 % | 26.2 % | 36.4 % | 33.1 % |
p
***
| 0.459 | 0.331 |
0.004
| 0.184 | ||||
Job
| ||||||||
House wife | 89 % | 87.2 % | 89.6 % | 88.4 % | 82.6 % | 91.3 % | 92.4 % | 88.3 % |
Employee | 8.1 % | 11.6 % | 6.9 % | 9.8 % | 15.1 % | 7.6 % | 5.2 % | 11.1 % |
Self-employment | 2.9 % | 1.2 % | 3.5 % | 1.7 % | 2.3 % | 1.2 % | 2.3 % | 0.6 % |
p
***
| 0.533 | 0.357 | 0.134 |
0.003
| ||||
Socioeconomic status
| ||||||||
Very low | 20.2 % | 6 % | 20.8 % | 10.8 % | 9.4 % | 17.3 % | 17.5 % | 13.5 % |
Lower medium | 27.2 % | 45.2 % | 27.2 % | 37.7 % | 38.8 % | 32.7 % | 33.7 % | 30.6 % |
Medium | 52.6 % | 47 % | 50.9 % | 49.1 % | 48.2 % | 48.8 % | 46.4 % | 54.7 % |
High | 0 % | 1.8 % | 1.2 % | 2.4 % | 3.5 % | 1.2 % | 2.4 % | 1.2 % |
p
***
|
< 0.001
| 0.181 |
0.059
| 0.456 |
Dietary pattern | Model 1 | Model 2 | Model 3 | ||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
N | OR | CI | P-trend* | OR | CI | P-trend* | OR | CI | P-trend* | ||
Fruits and dairy products | Q1 | 175 | 1 | - | 0.003 | 1 | - | 0.004 | 1 | - | 0.019 |
Q2 | 176 | 0.623 | 0.383-1.013 | 0.668 | 0.399-1.120 | 0.575 | 0.327-1.011 | ||||
Q3 | 176 | 0.507 | 0.308-0.833 | 0.511 | 0.303-0.862 | 0.472 | 0.267-0.835 | ||||
Q4 | 172 | 0.478 | 0.29-0.785 | 0.488 | 0.289-0.825 | 0.500 | 0.284-0.882 | ||||
Red meat and plant-based foods | Q1 | 177 | 1 | - | 0.634 | 1 | - | 0.798 | 1 | - | 0.950 |
Q2 | 169 | 0.964 | 0.591-1.571 | 0.869 | 0.519-1.455 | 0.901 | 0.512-1.585 | ||||
Q3 | 173 | 0.827 | 0.508-1.346 | 0.754 | 0.451-1.263 | 0.659 | 0.373-1.163 | ||||
Q4 | 174 | 0.742 | 0.456-1.209 | 0.712 | 0.422-1.200 | 0.660 | 0.372-1.173 | ||||
Snacks and high-fat foods | Q1 | 175 | 1 | - | 0.068 | 1 | - | 0.750 | 1 | - | 0.672 |
Q2 | 184 | 1.794 | 1.108-2.905 | 1.889 | 1.139-3.135 | 1.709 | 0.988-2.957 | ||||
Q3 | 162 | 1.203 | 0.728-1.988 | 1.325 | 0.777-2.262 | 1.153 | 0.642-2.068 | ||||
Q4 | 172 | 0.800 | 0.484-1.321 | 1.082 | 0.617-1.897 | 0.931 | 0.498-1.741 | ||||
Carbohydrate-rich foods | Q1 | 168 | 1 | - | 0.569 | 1 | - | 0.592 | 1 | - | 0.559 |
Q2 | 186 | 0.960 | 0.588-1.567 | 0.997 | 0.592-1.679 | 1.065 | 0.606-1.872 | ||||
Q3 | 167 | 1.408 | 0.852-2.329 | 1.542 | 0.905-2.629 | 1.743 | 0.970-3.130 | ||||
Q4 | 172 | 1.387 | 0.843-2.283 | 1.982 | 1.129-3.481 | 1.795 | 0.984-3.277 |