Background
Hepatitis B virus (HBV) infection is a major global public health issue. Serological evidence of HBV infection was observed in approximately one-third of the world’s population, of which 350–400 million people were chronically infected [
1]. Individuals infected with HBV are at high risk for the development of cirrhosis, liver failure, or hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) [
2,
3]. HBV is a DNA virus that primarily infected hepatocytes which mediated by HBV receptors located on the hepatocyte cell membrane. Although identifying the HBV receptors is not easy, several candidates have been reported [
4‐
6].
Recently, Li et al. found that NTCP (sodium taurocholate cotransporting polypeptide), which was specifically expressed in hepatocytes, was a necessary cell surface receptor for HBV entry [
7]. NTCP specifically interacts with the receptor-binding region of HBV pre-S1 and mediates woolly monkey HBV infection of
Tupaia hepatocytes [
7,
8]. Silencing NTCP inhibited HBV and HDV infection, whereas exogenous NTCP expression rendered non-susceptible hepatocarcinoma cells susceptible to viral infection [
7]. Additionally, Dieter Glebeb et al. found that tent-making bat HBV (TBHBV) could infect human hepatocytes using the human NTCP (hNTCP) receptor [
9].
Host genetics play an important role in the clinical outcome of HBV infection. Due to the popularity of genome-wide association studies (GWAS) in recent years, several susceptibility loci associated with HBV-related diseases have been identified. For example, genetic variants in the HLA-DP locus were found to be strongly associated with a risk of persistent HBV infection [
10]. Several genetic susceptible loci for HBV-related HCC were also identified [
11‐
13]. However, the relationship between genetic variants of full-length
NTCP and the HBV infection status has rarely been investigated [
14,
15]. In this study, we investigated whether genetic variants in the
NTCP gene predisposed subjects to HBsAg + HBeAg-positivity (representing higher HBV activity) and HBsAg-positivity (representing lower HBV activity) based on the finding that a higher serum HBV DNA concentration was observed in HBeAg-positive compared to HBeAg-negative individuals [
1,
16,
17].
Methods
Subjects
A population-based study wad designed with three groups for comparison, including 639 subjects positive for HBsAg and HBeAg (the PSE group), 1936 subjects positive for HBsAg (the PS group) and 1075 subjects negative for HBV antibodies and antigens (the control group). All of the study subjects were East China residents. A total of 2647 subjects were randomly selected from the hepatitis sub-cohort (including 43,000 subjects) of the Taizhou longitudinal (TZL) study. The profile of the TZL study was described elsewhere [
18]. An additional 299 subjects with hepatocellular carcinoma for the PSE group and 704 subjects with hepatocellular carcinoma for the PS group (HCC, long-term outcome of persistent infection of HBV) were recruited from the Shanghai Eastern Hepatobiliary Surgery Hospital (EHBH). The ages of the subjects in the PSE group, PS group, and control group were 45.34 ± 11.55 yrs, 52.36 ± 11.35 yrs, and 53.53 ± 12.93 yrs, respectively, and the three groups included 67.3, 65.6, and 49.5 % males, respectively. For the functional analysis, 33 paired tumor/non-neoplastic adjacent (normal) liver tissues from HBV-related HCC patients were obtained from the EHBH. Written informed consent was acquired from all of the participants, and the study protocol was approved by the Ethics Committee of the School of Life Sciences of Fudan University.
Identification of SNPs/indels in NTCP by Sanger sequencing
DNA preparation
Genomic DNA was isolated from human peripheral blood lymphocytes using the Mini DNA Extraction kit for Peripheral Blood (Lifefeng, Shanghai, China) and quantified with the NanoDrop ND-1000 spectrophotometer (NanoDrop, Wilmington, DE, USA).
Primer design
A full-length of 23,872 bp sequence of the human
NTCP gene was obtained from the GENE database of NCBI (National Center for Biotechnology Information, RefSeq: NC_000014.8) for primer design. Overall, 42 pairs of PCR primers were designed to amplify this gene, including the full-length gene and the core promoter, located from 70,240,928 to 70,264,606 on chromosome 14. The lengths of the PCR amplicons ranged from 725 bp to 1821 bp. The forward primers and/or reverse primers for each amplicon were used as Sanger sequencing primers. Furthermore, several nested primers were also used as the sequencing primers for the two long amplicons [Additional file
1].
PCR-based Sanger sequencing of NTCP
The PCR products of each primer pair were sequenced using an ABI 3730xl DNA Analyzer (Applied Biosystems, Foster City, CA, USA). Overall, 111, 110 and 110 subjects were chosen randomly from the PSE, PS, and control groups, respectively, for variant sequencing and variant frequency comparisons among groups.
SNP and indel identification
SNPs were identified utilizing the software CodonCode Aligner (CodonCode Corporation, Centerville, MA, USA), and indels were deduced manually after aligning to the reference sequence.
SNP genotyping assay
The variants for genotyping were chosen according to the following criteria: (1) SNPs distributed significantly (p < 0.05) or marginally significantly (p < 0.06) between any two groups (control, PS, PSE, and PS + PSE groups); (2) non-synonymous SNPs; (3) selected SNPs in the main LD block; and (4) novel variants that occurred only in the PSE + PS or controls at least three times.
The TaqMan SNP genotyping assay was performed to genotype the chosen variants in 528 PSE subjects, 1826 PS subjects and 965 Controls. All samples were genotyped using TaqMan on an ABI GeneAmp® PCR system 9700 (Applied Biosystems, Foster City, CA, USA) and an ABI Prism 7900HT sequence detection system (Applied Biosystems, Foster City, CA, USA).
Analysis of gene expression using real-time PCR
Total RNA was extracted from paired tumour and normal liver tissues from HBV-related HCC patients with the TRIzol reagent (Invitrogen, Carlsbad, CA, USA) [
19] according to the manufacturer’s protocol. The concentration of the isolated RNA and the A260/A280 ratio were measured with the NanoDrop ND-1000 spectrophotometer (NanoDrop Technologies, Wilmington, DE, USA). Then, 1 μg of the total RNA was used to synthesize first-strand cDNA with the PrimeScript™ RT reagent Kit (TaKaRa Bio, JPN). These products were diluted 1:40, and 2 μl was used as the template in a 10 μl real-time PCR reaction performed on an ABI Prism 7900 HT Sequence Detection System (Applied Biosystems, Foster City, CA, USA) using the SYBR® Premix Ex Taq™ II (TaKaRa Bio, JPN). The housekeeping gene
ACTB was adopted as the reference gene for the real-time PCR. Primers spanning the introns were designed using the Primer Express™ software (Applied Biosystems, Foster, CA, USA). The primer sequences were as follows:
ACTB: Forward (5′-GCTCCGGCATGTGCAA-3′);
Reverse (5′TCGCCCACATAGGAATCCTT-3′)
NTCP: Forward (5′-GGACATGAACCTCAGCATTGTG-3′);
Reverse (5′-ATCATAGATCCCCCTGGAGTAGAT-3′).
Statistical analysis
Deviation from the Hardy–Weinberg equilibrium (HWE) expectation for any genetic variant was tested using a Chi-square statistic. Continuous variables were expressed as the means (± standard deviation), and comparisons of continuous variables were conducted using the Student’s t-test. Unconditional logistic regression analyses were used to estimate the odds ratios (ORs) and their 95 % confidence intervals (CIs) for PS (HBsAg-positivity) or PSE (HBsAg- and HBeAg-positivity) under the assumption of different genetic models. Multivariate analyses were performed to adjust for age and gender. SPSS software version 16.0 for Windows was used in the statistical evaluation of the above-mentioned data.
The NTCP mRNA expression levels were calculated using the 2-Δct method. The NTCP mRNA expression levels were calculated relative to the ACTB housekeeping gene. The fold changes in the NTCP mRNA levels of tumor tissues relative to their paired normal tissues were calculated using the 2-ΔΔct method.
To construct relevant haplotypes, the genotype data were used to estimate the inter-marker LD, measure the pair-wise D’ and r
2 and define the LD blocks. Haplotype inferences and haplotype association tests were estimated using Haploview [
20].
Because the sample size was relatively small, a suggestive significance threshold of P < 0.05 was used to select SNPs for variant discovery. The Bonferroni correction was used to weed out false positive findings due to multiple testing. A significance threshold of P < 0.01 was used after multiplication by the total number of genotyped SNPs (0.05/5).
Discussion
In the present work, we described a genetic profile of the NTCP gene in a normal population, a HBe-negative population, and a HBe-positive population of Han Chinese. The rare and common genetic variants identified in the NTCP gene call for additional functional and trait association analyses. A functional genetic variant of NTCP (rs4646287) that was found to be associated with HBV infection status. The rare T allele of the SNP rs4646287 was not only linearly decreased in frequency in the control, PS, PSE and HCC subgroups but also predisposed to a decreased risk for PSE, which was indicative of reduced HBV activity. This result suggests a protective effect for the rs4646287-T allele for the host in response to HBV infection.
For the persistently infected patients in our study, the frequency of rs4646287 TT (or AA in the forward strand) was observed to be reduced (although not to a significant level) in the HCC group compared to the non-HCC group [10 (1.0 %) vs. 22 (1.4 %),
p = 0.47 under a recessive model]. Consistent with this finding, the frequency of the TT genotype was 0.7 % in the HCC group and 1.4 % in the non-HCC group in a GWAS study (data not published). However, the frequency of the rs4646287 TT genotype was slightly higher in the HCC group than in the non-HCC group in a study that included 186 HCC and 395 non-HCC subjects [6 (3.2 %) vs. 1 (0.3 %) subjects,
p = 0.018 in a recessive model][
14]. This discrepancy could be explained by the relatively small sample size or the different construction of the aforementioned study. Indeed, the TT genotype was observed to be more common in the HCC group than in the non-HCC group [4 (1.3 %) vs. 3 (0.9 %)] in the HBeAg-positive subjects (PSE group) in our study, although the difference did not reach statistical significance.
The SNP rs4646287, which is located in the first intron approximately 1 kb downstream of the first exon, may be an important variant that influences
NTCP expression. Genetic variants in the first intron may be important for the predisposition of complex traits. These variants may be located in an intron-based transcription enhancer or silencer, with different alleles corresponding to different gene expression levels [
25‐
27]. Using the transcriptional factor binding site prediction software TFSEARCH [
28], we found that C > T introduced a new DNA binding site for p300 (5′-AGGAG
CG-3′ to 5′-AGGAG
TG-3′), which might influence the expression of
NTCP and suggested a functional significance for this variant. However, “CC” carriers exhibited increased
NTCP mRNA levels compared to “CT + TT” carriers in normal tissues, and the lack of significance observed for this difference might be limited by the small sample size of our functional analysis (
n = 33). Interestingly, the decreased
NTCP mRNA levels of “CT + TT” compared to “CC” carriers reached as low as 0.21-fold in the tumor tissues, which may be due to the complicated enlargement effects of the pathological status.
The potential functional variant rs4646287 that influenced the HBV infection status might have evolutionary implications. The frequencies of the rs4646287 T allele differed among different ethnic groups; the frequency was 0 % in Africans and Europeans, but the allele was common in East Asians (11.31 % in Chinese and 12.35 % in Japanese populations [frequency information was obtained from the HapMap population data] and 10.93 % in our control Han subjects). However, the frequencies of the T allele in the HBV-infected subjects decreased to 10.10 % (PS group) and further decreased to 8.08 % in subjects with a more severe status (PSE group). Because Asians are more likely to be infected with HBV, the frequency of the functional rs4646287-T was decreased in the control, PS, and PSE subjects. Because rs4646287-T decreases the expression and hence function of NTCP, these results suggest that rs4646287-T is a protective factor in response to the selective pressure of HBV infection in Asians that arose during the long process of human evolution.
Notably, although the increased presence of the rs2296651 (Ser267Phe) mutant allele in the PSE group compared to the PS or control group did not survive multiple testing correction, this SNP was worth particular consideration. Phe267 is differentially distributed in different ethnic groups, with 0 % detected in Africans and Caucasians and a frequency of approximately 3–4 % in East Asians. Interestingly, the frequency of Phe267 decreases from southern to northern Chinese population, with 8.3 % in Guangdong and 8.1 % in Guangxi province (Southern China), 7.5 % in Chongqing, 5.4 % in Hunan and Hubei provinces, and 2.4 % in Henan province in a cohort of hepatitis B patients undergoing therapy with interferon a2a (data not shown). Functional analysis revealed that the mutant allele had a deleterious effect on the transport of bile acids [
24]. Moreover, this mutation also reduced the chance of HBV entering hepatocytes [
29]. This observation indicated that the mutant allele might be lower in HBV carriers, which was confirmed by the study of Yiming Wang et. al. who found that the Ser267Phe variant was significantly associated with resistance to CHB [
15]. In the present study, we found that the frequency of the mutant A allele was decreased in the PS group and increased in the PSE group relative to the controls. This finding was interesting, although we did not find an association between the Ser267Phe variant and the lower risk of CHB, possibly due to the lower frequency of Ser267Phe in our population (Eastern China, MAF
control = 2.7 %) compared to Yiming Wang’s population (Southern China, MAF
control = 10.9 %) [
15]. The frequency of HBV genotype C was reported to be higher in the PSE group than in the PS group in Han Chinese [
30,
31]. Therefore, questions remain concerning whether the more invasive HBV-C prefers human rs2296651-A, resulting in a higher A in the PSE group. Our data showed that individuals with the rs2296651 GA genotype had a higher risk of infection with HBV-C than individuals with the GG genotype (
OR = 1.42
p = 0.75), although this difference did not reach statistical significance. Thus, this mutant allele might affect the interaction between HBV and its receptor NTCP.
Rare variants (especially damaging variants predicted by SIFT/PolyPhen) are more frequently presented in the PSE group. Three of the eight missense variants predicted to be damaging, including Met256Thr (+18885 A/G, novel) in the fourth exon and Leu222Ser (+18131 A/G, novel) and Val200Met (rs202213974) in the third exon, were observed only in the PSE group. Neighbouring variants may induce several missense mutations that significantly reduce the uptake of bile acid and/or estrone sulfate by NTCP [
24]. These mutations include Ile223Thr (rs61745930) in the third exon and Ser267Phe (rs2296651), Ile279Thr (rs72547507) and Lys314Glu (rs72547506) in the fourth exon. The above observations may imply that the third or fourth exon of
NTCP plays an important role in NTCP substrate transport and that missense mutations in these regions can easily have deleterious impacts on the transport function of NTCP. Similarly, the Leu222Ser, Val200Met, and Met256Thr variants discovered in the present study may lead to reduced bile acid transport activity. Coincidently, rare variants identified in other exons (131 L > V in exon 2, 88I > T in exon 1, and 323A > P and 333A > T in exon 5) predicted to be benign/tolerated were not accumulated in the third or fourth exons. Larger studies are needed to evaluate the pathological effects of these damaging variants on HBV predisposition. The novel rare variant +20988G > A, which was adjacent to the boundary of the splicing site between intron 4 and exon 5, occurred 10 times in the PSE + PS group and was absent in the controls. This mutant might affect the splicing efficiency of NTCP.
To summarize, we recruited 1075 population-based healthy control subjects who did not carry antibodies and antigens against HBV, although this was not easy, due to the popularity of the hepatitis B vaccine in China over the past 20 years. Using a special study design that included control, PS, PSE, and HCC groups, we failed to observe a dose effect of genetic variants on different traits but observed a trend towards the effects of genetic variants on different levels of the HBV infection status. However, the statistical power of the present study may be insufficient for variants with low frequencies.
Competing interests
The authors declare that they have no competing interests.
Authors’ contributions
LJ and XFW designed the study. JMY and XFW wrote and edited the manuscript. YY, WPZ and HYW reviewed the specimen histology and contributed the HCC specimens. JQ, YJY and YMJ contributed the cohort samples. LHW and JMY isolated and purified the DNA and RNA from the clinical specimens and performed and analysed the qPCR data. JMY and MYX designed the primers. MYX, LHW and JMY directed the sequencing. All authors read and approved the final manuscript.