Results
The sixteen women ranged in age from 32 to 67 years (Table
2). Twelve were white, three were African American, and one was Asian. Six resided in the northeast region of the United States, while three lived in the Midwest, three in the South, and four on the West Coast. Twelve had founded non-profit organizations. Of the other four, two had served as Executive Directors of their organizations, and the remaining two as directors of a program within a larger organization. Therefore, although we had originally intended to use a broader definition of community change agent, our sample consisted predominantly of women who created change through the establishment of a new non-profit organization.
Table 2
Leader characteristics
White | 12 |
African American | 3 |
Asian | 1 |
Age in years at interview | Range 32–67; mean 49.8; median 48.0 |
Geographic location (U.S.) |
N
|
Northeast | 6 |
Midwest | 3 |
South | 3 |
West | 4 |
Highest level of education |
N
|
High school | 1 |
Bachelor’s degree | 6 |
Graduate or professional degree | 9 |
Role in organization |
N
|
Executive Director and Founder | 12 |
Executive Director, not Founder | 2 |
Program Director | 2 |
To preserve confidentiality, we discuss their community activities in very general terms. Seven were working to promote physical activity; four were working on programming to help provide access to healthy, affordable food; and five were promoting health more broadly within specific populations (Table
3). Seven of the women have organizations with national reach; of these, five had started at the community level and expanded, and the other two have major community-level components. Four organizations have regional impact and five are at the community level. Their primary target sub-populations within the community ranged from young children, to families, to older adults. Their organizations range in size (number of official staff) from 1 to 38. All organizations also have a number of associated unofficial (volunteer) staff.
Table 3
Organizational characteristics
Physical activity promotion | 7 |
Access to healthy, affordable food | 4 |
Health more broadly | 5 |
Current reach of organization |
N
|
National | 7 |
Regional | 4 |
Community | 5 |
Size (# official staff)* |
N
|
1 | 5 |
2–10 | 7 |
>10 (range 22–38) | 4 |
Primary target sub-population |
N
|
Low-income families | 4 |
School-age children | 3 |
Those in poverty/homeless | 3 |
Adolescent African American girls | 2 |
All community members | 2 |
“Tween” girls | 1 |
Older adults | 1 |
The path to leadership
The investigators analyzed the women’s stories for transformative events and experiences. Seven of the women spoke of experiencing a fairly sudden flash of insight, or “epiphany”, that led to their successful community leadership. For one woman, the epiphany involved a sudden sense of her own power and how that might be used in the world (“Once I’d touched on that kind of strength and internal power, I had to do something with it.”)(Founder/Executive Director, South, age 48). Three realized immediately that this epiphany would lead them down a difficult path; the insight was therefore almost an unwelcomed addition to their lives (“This was going to put me out there in a way that is really hard for me, and it still is hard, still is.”)(Founder/Executive Director, Northeast, age 58). For two, the epiphany took the form of a sudden clear vision of how things could change.
The discussion guide contained no questions about spirituality, yet in seven of the sixteen interviews this subject arose spontaneously. One woman discussed the concrete actions involved in growing her organization entirely within a story arc describing her steady spiritual evolution. Spiritual growth, in terms of a closer relationship with a higher power and greater self-realization and improvement, led to new aspects of her community work and vice versa. The work was also a vehicle to support the overall growth of others. Another woman also described her path in mainly spiritual terms, as an ability to listen to her intuition, even though this meant that she usually lacked a concrete plan. She realized this was not a traditional path, and that it may even seem unwise, but she credited it with her success in changing her own life and that of others.
"
“I really felt like I was hurling myself off the Grand Canyon. But I chose to take the leap, which I think is a key pivotal point for most people and it really goes against human nature to sort of throw yourself off the Grand Canyon and freefall to possibly your death, into this vast unknown, and that’s where I think most people get stuck. To move forward, to move on to the next level of their spiritual path let’s say. But any way I did it
.” (Founder/Executive Director, Midwest, age 47)"
For eight of the women, the change occurred more slowly, either through a series of experiences that raised their awareness and conviction, or through making a change in their own lives that essentially snowballed. For example, one woman’s path was catalyzed by observing her husband’s commitment to being physically active, becoming motivated to do likewise herself, obtaining work in the field, and then expanding her work to a community initiative.
Finally, for one woman, a transformative experience occurred with an invitation into a community that was not her own. The relationships that resulted provided her with motivation for taking action. In her story, she described the ways the community overcame hardship and endurance through the best of human traits: generosity, strength, and optimism. Had she not decided to put considerable energies toward creating an organization to help, she would have been denying these most noble human qualities within herself.
Leadership characteristics
The model of leadership that the women articulated was characterized by a strong vision along with a total commitment to that vision and an ability to inspire others to share it.
"
“I guess I think of a visionary. Someone who is capable of motivating others. Someone who can put their own needs aside for the greater good. Someone who can teach and inspire others to also lead. Who can I guess bring people to action.”
(Executive Director, West, age 67)"
The leadership qualities the women generally felt they possessed were related to their ability to carry out their vision. When the investigator asked women which characteristics of a good leader they believed they possessed, persistence and passion emerged as strong themes.
"
“…When I first got there they said no fruits and vegetables. They said, ‘they won’t eat it.’ And I said, ‘Who says so? They’re going to eat it! You wait!’ It took me two to three years for them to start eating all those salads, but they did.”
(Program Director, Northeast, age 54)"
"
“But to me, one of the secrets of my success is not to let obstacles stop me. There are a lot of people who have a lot of good ideas and work very hard. But some obstacles seem insurmountable, and it’s easy to just say, ‘This is too much. It’s impossible. I’ve tried this and it’s impossible.’ That is something that I will not do, would not do…”
(Founder/Executive Director, Northeast, age 62)"
Communications skills, compassion, humility, patience, and strength also emerged as key characteristics.
"
“I’m very, very good, excellent at public speaking. Telling stories. That has been a gift…I’m so passionate about what I’m doing that I’ve never felt any fear about standing up in front of 10 people, or 1000, just to share the vision for what we’re trying to accomplish here.”
(Founder/Executive Director, South, age 48)"
"
“I would say the primary [characteristic] is being able to listen. I think that’s something that I’ve gotten better at over the years and I think I was a much worse leader when I was younger. Because I was so convinced that my view and my goals and my plans and vision was right. I would find ways to overcome any obstacles, but that sometimes meant not listening to people who had a different point of view. So I think I’ve learned to be a much better listener, and I think that is really good.”
(Founder/Executive Director, Northeast, age 67)"
"
“Humility, I think is the biggest thing for me that comes to mind. I think strength, vision, coupled with humility and knowing that however much of a vision you think you have, knowing and understanding that you may not have it all and being open to criticism, being open to input, being open to other ideas.”
(Executive Director, West, age 45)"
While many of the women identified these qualities as important to leadership, and particularly their own leadership, they did not necessarily consider themselves to be leaders. Several women noted that they lacked traditional leadership qualities. They were not particularly astute managers, nor were they especially charismatic.
"
“Kind of funny, what comes to mind is not me. That can kind of be my fault, is that I don’t always look at myself as a leader.”
(Founder/Executive Director, Midwest, age 38)"
"
“Well, I am not charismatic and I’ve never been told that I am. I think that would be a good quality.”
(Founder/Executive Director, Northeast, age 62)"
None of the questions asked specifically about being a female leader, and only one woman brought up the topic spontaneously. This woman, whose organization addresses physical activity but who had worked on similar issues outside of the public health sector for many years, felt that she had been denied access to opportunities because of her gender. Ultimately, however, this had allowed her to take a less traditional approach which has benefited her.
"
“I have felt in the past that opportunities passed me by because they were looking for men…And in some ways maybe that freed me up, so that I…have this unconventional approach…I really did things my own way…When people first think about leadership, they turn to men, and being a female leader has been a little different course.”
(Executive Director, South, age 48)"
Fostering leadership
No clear themes emerged around the use of traditional methods for enhancing leadership, such as workshops and seminars. Many of the women had used these methods and found them to be helpful. Some said that they would like to improve their leadership in these ways, but had no time or money to do so. Others said they had no use for these traditional methods for enhancing leadership.
"
“I have looked into seminars and courses, and usually those things cost money, and I haven’t really been willing to spend the organization’s money on those things.”
(Executive Director, West, age 45)"
"
“I find those things very boring and tedious. It’s embarrassing to say that I don’t have any interest in that…I feel that it’s something you do and you learn about it by doing it.”
(Executive Director, West, age 67)"
The women used books as tools more consistently. Although many of the women had read books specifically about leadership, several said that other types of books had been as useful to them including biographies, books on activism, and self-help books.
"
“What helps me is I tend to read a lot of autobiographies. And I feel like really taking people that I admire, and know but don’t know in some way, and catching an honest glimpse of their lives and the mistakes they’ve made or the other things they might regret or the things they excelled in, tends to help me.”
(Founder/Executive Director, Midwest, age 47)"
"
“I don’t know if any of the books have leadership in the title, but books that touch upon leadership or running or managing – not really managing but activism. Books that encompass leadership but aren’t necessarily about how to be a leader.”
(Founder/Executive Director, South, age 34)"
Four of the women had used a leadership coach and found that to be helpful.
"
“But I have an executive coach; I have had one for the past couple years, through one of our funders, and he has been fantastic for me.”
(Founder/Executive Director, Northeast, age 32)"
Mentoring
Nearly all of the women indicated that mentoring was critical to their success and their growth as a leader. Although this topic was specifically addressed in the interview guide, it often arose spontaneously very early in the interviews. Several major themes emerged in terms of the role that mentors played. One of the major roles was to inspire the women by what they were doing or had done themselves; these mentors included family members, leaders of other organizations, and historical figures.
"
“Quite truthfully, my mother, but not from the sense of her being my mother but the challenges that she has dealt with…Just because her hearing is really limited, yet she taught English for, I don’t even know, 20 years. And then continued to move up to administration, and when she retired she was the principal of a school. And so from witnessing that you just keep on going and you don’t take ‘no’ for an answer and you don’t let something that could easily hinder you or give you a reason to change course – you just focus on your course and make it happen.”
(Founder/Executive Director, Northeast, age 37)"
"
“I think just generally speaking, it sounds awfully cliché, I think a lot of the leadership that was provided during the Civil Rights Movement, particularly from Bobby Kennedy and certainly Martin Luther King. I think their consciousness around the work of movement building is something that I admire…But I would say more from an abstract or conceptual perspective than a sort of attempt to mirror directly in my own behavior.”
(Founder/Executive Director, Northeast, age 32)"
Mentors also demonstrated a strong belief in the women leaders, and helped push them to realize their fullest potential, as well as offering specific advice. These mentors often included older women and/or business entrepreneurs, with whom the women had a relatively close relationship.
"
“She has seen consistently in me attributes that I haven’t even seen in myself sometimes. I can count on her to push me to do things that I [thought I] couldn’t do. That I couldn’t see. And discover, I can do this.”
(Founder/Executive Director, Northeast, age 58)"
"
“So he’s been able to really give me a lot of great advice as far as marketing myself, marketing my organization, kind of overcoming that humbleness, which as I said can be a fault at times…So he’s really helped me come out of my shell a lot more.”
(Founder/Executive Director, Midwest, age 38)"
Motivations and definitions of success
The women defined success primarily as the ability to change the lives of others. This is also what kept them motivated to do their work, especially as they faced numerous challenges. The women were not particularly motivated by money or the size of their organizations. Although they appreciated being recognized for their work, prestige did not drive them.
"
“So for me, impact is changed lives. Healed bodies, minds, spirits. Especially women who begin to glimpse who they are and go forth. That really matters to me.”
(Founder/Executive Director, Northeast, age 58)"
"
“It’s hideous to have to try and raise a million dollars every year, six million dollars to build a building you need and if that’s not where your gifts are, it is the tough part. But the offsetting pleasure of seeing people enjoy themselves and benefit from what they are doing…People who were sedentary and now they can get up and take a walk and they make new friends, and now they are hiking, and now they are skiing. It’s a thrilling business and I just love that. To see people blossom in all kinds of ways.”
(Executive Director, West, age 67)"
"
“But I would say that more concretely is when I actually see a change in the individuals that we work with. So to our youth training program, to actually see the penny drop, to see people shift in terms of how they view food as a social justice issue, in terms of how they suddenly see their own role in the world, in terms of not just having to be receivers of whatever is handed out to them, but being an agent of change. I think that’s what keeps me motivated.”
(Executive Director, West, age 45)"
The women’s other measures of success included having changed policy and supporting a healthy, thriving, sustainable organization.
"
“An then just little successes like we work on things that are related to policy change or environmental change that changes the conditions in which people live, to make the healthy choice the default option, the easier choice, the thing that just happens. So when I get those little successes, that really makes me feel like, wow, if I hadn’t done that then that wouldn’t have happened. That’s pretty cool!”
(Program Director, Midwest, age 53)"
"
“The big, hairy idea of success is that, you know, we’ll build a movement, and we’ll do a national direct service program, and then on the shoulders of that, a training program that serves even more kids, and then on the shoulders of that, an advocacy and policy sort of approach that creates a system where the expectation is that kids have access to healthy, safe play.”
(Founder/Executive Director, West, age 44)"
"
“I would say there would be some measure of success when I am able to leave and other young people from the neighborhood are running the work, which is what we’re planning, that process and that transition now. When that happens, then I’ll feel like yes, I did something right.”
(Executive Director, West, age 45)"
The women identified the support of others, particularly family members, as an important factor in achieving success as they defined it.
"
“I would say my family. The support of my husband and my own children. I think that’s what keeps me going. They remind me of – when I’m feeling maybe a personal failure, or worried, or whatever about anything with [program], they’re the ones that remind me to keep going and that great things are happening.”
(Founder/Executive Director, Midwest, age 38)"
Challenges
The women faced a common set of challenges. Not surprisingly, obtaining adequate funding was one of these.
"
“It’s not easy, especially at the beginning, especially in the first 3 or 4 years to go and say, ‘Please give me a lot of money, and this is my idea, I’m going to make it work.’”
(Founder/Executive Director, Northeast, age 62)"
A shared strategy for overcoming this challenge was conducting thorough research. This allowed the women to demonstrate their mastery of the issue, and it also allowed them to find the best ways to position their cause so that it would resonate with potential funders.
"
“I know how to approach people and do my elevator speech. I understand what I’m doing. I’ve done a lot of research…”
(Founder/Executive Director, West, age 63)"
The women identified organizational growth as another common challenge. Success brought with it difficulty in staying true to an original mission, as well as a changing culture, as the programs and organizations grew from a few highly dedicated people to a more organized (and sometimes hierarchical) structure.
"
“It was not easy. So there were some times where I was afraid we were getting a little too far from our mission. Lots of sleepless nights. Oh my gosh. Trying to figure out how to bring it back.”
(Founder/Executive Director, South, age 48)"
Women noted that overcoming challenges often involved being able to recognize their own limitations and bringing in personnel to complement their skills. This meant letting go of some control. While initially this may have been a painful process, ultimately it fit with the women’s own definitions of leadership, which included the empowerment of others.
"
“I would say that would be the defining characteristic of the way most obstacles around here get solved, is that I get out of the way (laughs)… I had to come to terms with the fact that I’m a great leader, but I’m not a particularly astute manager. I had to really recognize that if we were going to achieve scale, that we needed to bring in folks who really focused on managing others. That was hard… So, yeah, I think stepping out of the way and letting other people really play to their strengths.”
(Founder/Executive Director, West, age 44)"