Introduction
Management of trauma pain by healthcare professionals (HCPs) in the emergency department (ED) and prehospital settings is a crucial element of care. Approximately 38 million people across Europe visit the hospital ED each year due to injuries, with 5.3 million of these patients admitted for further treatment [
1]. Pain is often the main complaint of trauma patients and is reported by up to 70% of patients in pre-hospital settings and 91% in EDs [
2‐
4].
However, inadequate relief of trauma pain is commonly reported by patients in the EU and beyond [
5]. For example, in a large, multicenter study conducted in the US and Canada, 74% of patients were discharged from the ED in moderate or severe pain [
6]. Moderate-to-severe pain is also commonly reported by patients discharged from European EDs [
7]. In Europe, the treatment for trauma pain is largely similar between the pre-hospital setting and the ED, mainly consisting of paracetamol, non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs), nitrous oxide (N
2O), and opioids [
3,
8‐
10]. Current use of these analgesics may be considered inadequate. Indeed, prospective data from Norwegian and Italian EDs indicated only 14 and 32% of patients with moderate-to-severe pain received analgesia, respectively [
10,
11]. Suboptimal assessment and management of trauma pain has also been reported by emergency medical services in prehospital settings [
3,
12]. The impact associated with lack of effective pain control also extends beyond the patient’s perspective to the wider emergency setting as HCPs are, in turn required to manage increased levels of pain which impacts resources [
4]. Consequently, there appears to be an unmet need for a safe, timely, and efficacious treatment for trauma pain in emergency settings.
We conducted a qualitative review of published literature with the aim of identifying current barriers to the effective management of trauma pain in Europe. Based on these findings, we sought to identify potential areas for improvement in the management of trauma pain in emergency settings.
Methods
A literature search was conducted to identify publications reporting current treatment approaches for trauma pain in emergency settings in Europe (including both pre-hospital and EDs), the limitations of these therapies and other barriers to effective pain control. An integrative review framework was used. This approach enables evaluation of heterogeneous studies, thereby providing comprehensive methodology to assess a particular healthcare phenomenon [
13]. The following computerized bibliographic databases were searched using the OVID search engine: Medline, Embase, and the Evidence-Based Medicine Reviews. The search was limited to human studies published in English language in the past 11 years (January 01, 2006–December 31, 2017). Combinations of terms were utilized such as (analgesia or acute pain or injury or trauma pain) and (emergency services or emergency department or pre-hospital) OR (treatment pathway or standard of care) OR (cost or economic or financial) OR (quality of life or treatment satisfaction or social cost). Retrieved abstracts were assessed for relevance against a pre-defined inclusion and exclusions criteria, agreed by the co-authors prior in order to establish the objectives of this literature analysis (Table
1). The search strategy was agreed by all co-authors, and all co-authors were involved in the final selection and appraisal of the papers. All types of studies were captured in this qualitative review, including randomized controlled trials (RCTs), observational studies, review articles, and treatment guidelines.
Table 1
Inclusion and exclusion criteria used in the literature review
Publications were included which: 1. Discussed the prevalence or incidence of pain in emergency settings 2. Discussed pain in relation to time and duration of pain before relief in emergency settings 3. Reported treatment pathways for mild, moderate, and severe trauma pain in emergencies. This could be recorded also as “pain induced by trauma”, “trauma-induced pain”, or “acute pain from fractures” 4. Captured treatment patterns and pain management of patients with moderate-to-severe trauma pain 5. Described the limitations of current treatments for trauma pain in emergency settings 6. Discussed the burden of trauma pain in an emergency setting on healthcare providers | Publications were excluded which: 1. Did not report on pain or treatments for pain 2. Focused on long-term chronic pain 3. Related solely to the treatment of trauma pain in specific patient groups, including: pediatrics, elderly, pregnant, or patients with reduced consciousness (papers that included subgroups of populations [e.g., elderly or pediatric patients] within a range of individuals were not excluded) 4. Focused on the treatment of pain from major trauma 5. Did not have a European focus |
An additional search of Internet-based sources (websites of the World Health Organization, NHS Choices, and College of Emergency Medicine) was conducted to identify relevant gray literature, i.e., research produced by organizations outside of traditional publishing channels. This search was conducted using no pre-defined search criteria and included both publicly available information and peer-reviewed publications that may not yet be indexed in databases such as PubMed or Embase because of their recent publication date or because they were published in journals that are not indexed within these databases. Additional references were identified by targeted searching for information to corroborate expert knowledge shared by authors of working practices in their respective countries. Investigative questions regarding the standard of care in the treatment of trauma pain and barriers to effective management of trauma pain were developed and addressed using evidence collated from the identified studies. This article is based on previously conducted studies and does not contain any studies with human participants or animals performed by any of the authors.
Discussion
Pain imposes a substantial burden on emergency care, as this is often the primary complaint of patients presenting to EDs [
59]. We have identified a variety of limitations associated with many analgesics, including difficulties associated with IV administration necessary for some drugs and bulky equipment requirements for N
2O, particularly in pre-hospital settings [
34,
43,
44]. Other treatment-associated limitations identified include aversion to opioid analgesics due to perceptions associated with this class of agents, safety concerns, and regulatory barriers [
14,
41,
53]. Consequently, for the treatment of moderate-to-severe trauma pain in emergency settings, there remains an unmet need for analgesic agents to be widely used that have a fast onset of action, limited contraindications, and are easy to administer.
Barriers to the effective management of trauma pain in emergency settings outside of the analgesic products used were also identified. These included failure to use validated pain scales to aid triage assessment as well as low prioritization of trauma pain by some HCPs [
11,
53]. Furthermore, our literature search identified no pan-European clinical guidelines addressing management of trauma pain in emergency settings and only two local guidelines [
8,
19]. However, several publications referred to institution-specific protocols [
9,
11,
14]. Consequently, development of national and regional European guidelines detailing analgesic use and the wider management of trauma pain in Europe would be key in reducing the burden of pain to HCPs [
52,
55]. Such guidelines should also include methods to accurately assess patient pain. Therefore, we recommend that relevant professional organizations across Europe who represent HCPs treating patients with trauma pain convene to develop clinical practice guidelines. Indeed, input from global experts should also be considered for best-practice recommendations. The findings from this European-focused literature analysis on trauma pain are supported by US-focused and global literature reviews, which call for timely assessment of pain at presentation and following administration of analgesia using age-appropriate, validated scales, and wider implementation of pain management protocols [
24,
55,
68].
Some barriers to the effective management of trauma pain in emergency settings could be addressed by use of easily portable, IN, non-opioid analgesia such as methoxyflurane [
34,
35]. Furthermore, by multimodal analgesia, i.e., multiple complementary analgesic agents used in combination, physicians can ensure that patients achieve adequate pain relief throughout their journey in emergency settings and possibly reduce the side effects associated with strong analgesics such as opioids [
69]. The use of multimodal analgesia also allows the physician to tailor pain relief to an individual patient [
69]. Patient-controlled analgesia may provide a solution to dosage and frequency limitations of current methods of pain relief [
70,
71].
The literature review was limited by only searching for articles in the English language, which may have discounted local language publications and guidelines. This review also focused solely on the treatment of adult patients with trauma pain and so does not discuss the separate challenges faced when treating elderly or pediatric patients (such as the likelihood of comorbidities and analgesic dosing considerations). Some publications identified from the literature review also included discussion of acute pain, not always as a result of trauma. These publications were captured as they provide a valuable insight into the barriers to effective management of acute pain in emergency settings. Furthermore, while this publication discusses the burden of trauma pain in Europe as a whole, due to the limited results of the literature search, information from all European countries could not be included.
Conclusions
In conclusion, based on evidence in published literature, the management of trauma pain in emergency settings across Europe could be improved by the development of novel analgesics and greater uptake of available agents, which overcome several of the practical and safety limitations associated with widely used products. Improved measures of assessing patient pain and the development and implementation of effective protocols for pain management will also be important steps in reducing the burden of trauma pain in emergency settings in Europe.