Introduction
Methods
Species |
---|
Deer spp. (e.g. Muntiacus muntjak and Rusa unicolor) |
Sunda Bearded Pig (Sus barbatus) |
Eurasian Wild Pig (Sus scrofa) |
Squirrel spp. (not specified) |
Civet spp. (e.g. Paradoxurus hermaphroditus and Viverra tangalunga) |
Softshell Turtle (e.g. Amyda cartilaginea and Dogania subplana) |
Sumatran Serow (Capricornis sumatraensis) |
Flying Fox spp. (e.g. Pteropus vampyrus and P. hypomelanus) |
Porcupine spp. (e.g. Hystrix brachyura) |
Reticulated Python (Python reticulatus) |
Water Monitor Lizard (Varanus salvator) |
Estuarine Crocodile (Crocodylus porosus) |
Sun Bear (Helarctos malayanus) |
Long-tailed Macaque (Macaca fascicularis) |
Sunda Pangolin (Manis javanica) |
Tiger (Panthera tigris jacksoni) |
Red Junglefowl (Gallus gallus) |
Leopard (Panthera pardus) |
Asian Elephant (Elephas maximus) |
Monocled Cobra (Naja kaouthia) |
Tortoise spp. (not specified) |
Results
Virus | Wildlife host (taxonomic order or family) | |||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Suidae | Cervidae | Sciuridae | Viverridae | Caprinae | Pteropodidae | Hystricidae | Ursidae | |
Avian paramyxovirus-1 | ||||||||
Cercopithecine herpesvirus-1 | ||||||||
Cowpox virus (Orthopoxvirus) | ||||||||
Ebola virus subtype Reston |
X
| |||||||
Hepatitis E virus |
X
|
X
| ||||||
Highly pathogenic avian influenza virus |
X
| |||||||
Lymphocytic choriomeningitis virus |
X
| |||||||
Nipah virus |
X
| |||||||
Orf virus (Parapoxvirus) |
X
|
X
| ||||||
Rabies virus and related Lyssaviruses |
X
|
X
|
X
|
X
| ||||
Reoviruses (e.g. Melaka virus) |
X
| |||||||
SARS Coronavirus |
X
|
X
| ||||||
Simian foamy virus | ||||||||
Simian type D retrovirus | ||||||||
Simian virus 40 | ||||||||
Swine influenza virus |
X
|
Virus | Wildlife host (taxonomic order or family) | |||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Cercopithecidae | Felidae | Manidae | Elephantidae | Squamata | Testudines | Crocodylia | Galliformes | |
Avian paramyxovirus-1 |
X
| |||||||
Cercopithecine herpesvirus-1 |
X
| |||||||
Cowpox virus (Orthopoxvirus) |
X
| |||||||
Ebola virus subtype Reston |
X
| |||||||
Hepatitis E virus | ||||||||
Highly pathogenic avian influenza virus |
X
|
X
| ||||||
Lymphocytic choriomeningitis virus | ||||||||
Nipah virus | ||||||||
Orf virus (Parapoxvirus) | ||||||||
Rabies virus and related Lyssaviruses |
X
|
X
| ||||||
Reoviruses (e.g. Melaka virus) | ||||||||
SARS* Coronavirus | ||||||||
Simian foamy virus |
X
| |||||||
Simian type D retrovirus |
X
| |||||||
Simian virus 40 |
X
| |||||||
Swine influenza virus |
Bacteria | Wildlife host (taxonomic order or family) | |||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Suidae | Cervidae | Sciuridae | Viverridae | Caprinae | Pteropodidae | Hystricidae | Ursidae | |
Bacillus anthracis
|
X
|
X
| ||||||
Bartonella henselae
|
X
| |||||||
Brucella spp. |
X
|
X
|
X
|
X
| ||||
Campylobacter spp. |
X
|
X
|
X
|
X
| ||||
Chlamydophila spp. |
X
|
X
|
X
| |||||
Dermatophilus congolensis
| ||||||||
Edwardsiella tarda
| ||||||||
Erysipelothrix rhusiopathiae
|
X
|
X
| ||||||
Escherichia coli (shiga-toxin producing) |
X
|
X
|
X
| |||||
Francisella tularensis
|
X
|
X
|
X
| |||||
Leptospira spp. |
X
|
X
|
X
|
X
|
X
|
X
|
X
| |
Mycobacterium tuberculosis complex |
X
|
X
|
X
| |||||
Other Mycobacterium spp. | ||||||||
Pasteurella spp. | ||||||||
Salmonella spp. |
X
|
X
|
X
|
X
|
X
| |||
Shigella spp. | ||||||||
Streptococcus spp. |
X
|
X
| ||||||
Yersinia pestis
|
X
|
X
|
X
| |||||
Other Yersinia spp. |
X
|
X
|
X
|
X
|
Bacteria | Wildlife host (taxonomic order or family) | |||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Cercopithecidae | Felidae | Manidae | Elephantidae | Squamata | Testudines | Crocodylia | Galliformes | |
Bacillus anthracis
|
X
| |||||||
Bartonella henselae
|
X
| |||||||
Brucella spp. | ||||||||
Campylobacter spp. |
X
|
X
|
X
|
X
| ||||
Chlamydophila spp. |
X
| |||||||
Dermatophilus congolensis
|
X
|
X
|
X
| |||||
Edwardsiella tarda
|
X
|
X
|
X
| |||||
Erysipelothrix rhusiopathiae
|
X
| |||||||
Escherichia coli (shiga-toxin producing) | ||||||||
Francisella tularensis
| ||||||||
Leptospira spp. |
X
|
X
| ||||||
Mycobacterium tuberculosis complex |
X
|
X
| ||||||
Other Mycobacterium spp. |
X
|
X
| ||||||
Pasteurella spp. |
X
| |||||||
Salmonella spp. |
X
|
X
|
X
|
X
|
X
| |||
Shigella spp. |
X
| |||||||
Streptococcus spp. | ||||||||
Yersinia pestis
|
X
| |||||||
Other Yersinia spp. |
X
|
Parasite | Wildlife host (taxonomic order or family) | |||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Suidae | Cervidae | Sciuridae | Viverridae | Caprinae | Pteropodidae | Hystricidae | Ursidae | |
Ancyclostoma spp. | ||||||||
Anisakidae spp. | ||||||||
Balantidium coli
|
X
| |||||||
Cryptosporidium spp. |
X
|
X
| ||||||
Enantomoeba histolytica
| ||||||||
Giardia spp. |
X
|
X
| ||||||
Gnathostoma spp. |
X
| |||||||
Oesophagostomum spp. | ||||||||
Pentastomidia spp. | ||||||||
Sarcocystis spp. |
X
|
X
|
X
|
X
| ||||
Spirometra spp. |
X
| |||||||
Strongyloides spp. | ||||||||
Taenia spp. |
X
| |||||||
Toxoplasma gondii
|
X
|
X
|
X
|
X
|
X
|
X
| ||
Trichinella spp. |
X
|
X
|
X
| |||||
Trichuris spp. |
X
|
Parasite | Wildlife host (taxonomic order or family) | |||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Cercopithecidae | Felidae | Manidae | Elephantidae | Squamata | Testudines | Crocodylia | Galliformes | |
Ancyclostoma spp. |
X
| |||||||
Anisakidae spp. |
X
| |||||||
Balantidium coli
|
X
| |||||||
Cryptosporidium spp. |
X
|
X
|
X
|
X
| ||||
Enantomoeba histolytica
|
X
| |||||||
Giardia spp. |
X
| |||||||
Gnathostoma spp. |
X
| |||||||
Oesophagostomum spp. |
X
| |||||||
Pentastomidia spp. |
X
|
X
|
X
| |||||
Sarcocystis spp. |
X
|
X
|
X
| |||||
Spirometra spp. |
X
| |||||||
Strongyloides spp. |
X
| |||||||
Taenia spp. | ||||||||
Toxoplasma gondii
|
X
|
X
| ||||||
Trichinella spp. |
X
|
X
|
X
| |||||
Trichuris spp. |
X
|
Type of pathogen | Pathogen species | Human disease description | Potential transmission route from wildlife to human | Potential zoonotic risk from hunting, butchering or consumption | Referenced evidence of zoonotic infection to humans from wildlife taxa |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Virus |
Avian paramyxovirus-1
(Newcastle disease) | Conjunctivitis or influenza-like disease | Contact with large amounts of virus from infected birds or their carcasses e.g. inhalation | Hunting Butchering | |
Cercopithecine herpesvirus-1
| Herpes B virus disease | Transcutaneous: via animal bites or scratches Non-bite exposure: via mucous membranes or damaged skin | Hunting Butchering | ||
Cowpox virus (Orthopoxvirus)
| Cowpox | Transcutaneous: via animal bites, scratches or damaged skin | Hunting Butchering | ||
Ebola virus (subtype Reston) | Ebola haemorrhagic fever | Contact with infected animals, body fluids and tissues | Hunting Butchering | ||
Hepatitis E virus
| Hepatitis E | Foodborne Faeco-oral? Direct contact with infected animal blood? | Consumption Hunting? Butchering? | ||
Highly pathogenic avian influenza virus
| Avian influenza | Contact with infected respiratory secretions Ingestion of blood or undercooked meat? Faeco-oral? | Hunting Butchering Consumption? | ||
Lymphocytic choriomeningitis virus
| Lymphocytic choriomeningitis | Transcutaneous: via animal bites Contact with infected animal excretions and secretions | Hunting Butchering | ||
Nipah virus
| Nipah virus infection | Ingestion of virus-contaminated food products Contact with infected urine or saliva or tissues | Consumption Hunting Butchering | ||
Orf virus (Parapoxvirus)
| Contagious ecthyma | Transcutaneous: via damaged skin or wounds | Hunting Butchering | ||
Rabies virus and related Lyssaviruses
| Rabies and rabies-related disease | Transcutaneous: via animal bites and scratches Non-bite exposure: via mucous membranes or damaged skin | Hunting Butchering |
Viverridae: (ProMED-mail 2009) Tanzania
Pteropodidae: (Hanna et al. 2000; Samaratunga et al. 1998; Warrilow et al. 2002; ProMED-mail 2014a) Australia
Felidae: (Pandit 1950) India | |
Reoviruses (e.g. Melaka virus, Pulau virus)
| Acute respiratory disease | Direct transmission from bat to human occurs via close contact? | Hunting? Butchering? |
Pteropodidae: (Chua et al. 2007) Malaysia | |
SARS* Coronavirus
| SARS | Mucosal transmission: contact with virus-infected respiratory droplets Indirect transmission via virus-contaminated fomites | Hunting Butchering | ||
Simian foamy virus
| Simian foamy virus infection | Transcutaneous and mucosal: via animal bites, scratches and saliva splashes | Hunting Butchering | ||
Simian type D retrovirus
| Persistently seropositive humans without disease | Transcutaneous and mucosal: via animal bites, scratches, saliva splashes? | Hunting? Butchering? |
Cercopithecidae: (Lerche et al. 2001) USA | |
Simian virus 40
| Role in human cancers? | Transcutaneous and mucosal: via animal bites, scratches and saliva splashes | Hunting Butchering | ||
Swine influenza virus
| Swine influenza | Contact with infected respiratory secretions | Hunting Butchering | ||
Bacteria |
Bacillus anthracis
| Anthrax | Foodborne Transcutaneous: contact with contaminated carcasses and animal products Inhalation of spores | Consumption Butchering |
Suidae: (ProMED-mail 2011) India |
Bartonella henselae
| Cat scratch disease | Transcutaneous via animal bites and scratches | Hunting |
Viverridae: (Miyazaki et al. 2001) Japan | |
Brucella spp. | Brucellosis | Foodborne Transcutaneous and mucosal: contact with infected bodily fluids or tissues | Consumption Hunting Butchering | ||
Campylobacter spp. | Campylobacter enteritis | Foodborne Faeco-oral | Consumption Hunting Butchering |
Squamata: (Patrick et al. 2013) USA | |
Chlamydophilia spp. | Chlamydiosis | Transcutaneous and aerogenous: contact with infected secretions or excretions | Hunting Butchering | ||
Psittacosis (from birds) | Inhalation of infected respiratory secretions or dried faeces | Hunting Butchering | |||
Dermatophilus congolensis
| Dermatophilosis | Transcutaneous: direct contact with infected lesions | Hunting Butchering | ||
Edwardsiella tarda
| Edwardsiellosis | Foodborne Faeco-oral Transcutaneous: via wound | Consumption Hunting Butchering |
Testudines: (Nagel et al. 1982) USA | |
Erysipelothrix rhusiopathiae
| Erysipeloid | Foodborne Transcutaneous: direct contact with infected animal products via damaged skin/wounds | Consumption Butchering |
Suidae: (Addidle et al. 2009) New Zealand.
Galliformes: (Mutalib et al. 1995) USA | |
Escherichia coli (Shiga-toxin producing) spp. | Enterohaemorrhagic E. coli infections | Foodborne Faecal-oral | Consumption Hunting Butchering | ||
Francisella tularensis
| Tularemia | Foodborne Transcutaneous or mucosal: direct contact with infected animals Inhalation of aerosolised bacteria | Consumption Hunting Butchering |
Suidae: (Deutz et al. 2002) Austria; (Esmaeili et al. 2014) Iran
Ursidae: (Chase et al. 1980) USA | |
Leptospira spp. | Leptospirosis | Foodborne: urine-contaminated meat Transcutaneous or mucosal: contact with infected urine | Consumption Hunting Butchering |
Cervidae: (Brown 2005) New Zealand
Sciuridae: (Diesch et al. 1967) USA; (Masuzawa et al. 2006) Japan
Pteropodidae: (Vashi et al. 2010) USA
Ursidae: (Anderson et al. 1978) USA | |
Mycobacterium tuberculosis complex (M. tuberculosis and M. bovis)
| Tuberculosis | Foodborne Transcutaneous: direct contact via damaged skin/wounds Inhalation of aerosolised bacteria | Consumption Hunting Butchering |
Cervidae: (Baker et al. 2006) New Zealand; (Fanning and Edwards 1991; Liss et al. 1993; Nation et al. 1999) Canada; (Wilkins et al. 2003) (Wilkins et al. 2008) USA
Cercopithecidae: (Une and Mori 2007) Japan | |
Other Mycobacterium spp. | Mycobacteriosis | Inhalation or ingestion of aerosolised bacteria | Butchering | ||
Pasteurella spp. | Pasteurellosis | Transcutaneous: via animal bites | Hunting | ||
Salmonella spp. | Salmonellosis | Foodborne Faecal-oral Transcutaneous: via animal bites and scratches | Consumption Hunting Butchering | ||
Shigella spp. | Shigellosis | Foodborne: faecal-contaminated meat Faeco-oral | Consumption Hunting Butchering |
Cercopithecidae: (Kennedy et al. 1993) UK | |
Streptococcus spp. | Streptococcosis | Transcutaneous: direct contact via damaged skin/wounds | Hunting Butchering | ||
Yersinia pestis
| Plague | Transcutaneous or mucosal: contact with infected animals or carcasses Inhalation of aerosolised bacteria | Hunting Butchering |
Sciuridae: (Li et al. 2005a) China | |
Other Yersinia spp. | Yersiniosis | Foodborne Faeco-oral | Consumption Hunting Butchering | ||
Parasite |
Ancyclostoma spp. | Cutaneous larva migrans | Transcutaneous: infective larvae that penetrate skin | Butchering | |
Anisakidae spp. | Anisakiasis | Foodborne: infective larvae in meat | Consumption | ||
Balantidium coli
| Balantidiasis | Foodborne: faecal-contaminated meat Faeco-oral: ingestion of cysts | Consumption Hunting Butchering | ||
Cryptosporidium spp. | Cryptosporidiosis | Foodborne: faecal-contaminated meat Faeco-oral: ingestion of oocysts | Consumption Hunting Butchering | ||
Enantomoeba histolytica
| Amoebiasis | Foodborne: faecal-contaminated meat Faeco-oral: ingestion of cysts | Consumption Hunting Butchering | ||
Giardia spp. | Giardiasis | Foodborne: faecal-contaminated meat Faeco-oral: ingestion of cysts | Consumption Hunting Butchering | ||
Gnathostoma spp. | Gnathostomiasis | Foodborne: infective larvae in meat | Consumption | ||
Oesophagostomum spp. | Oesophagostomiasis | Foodborne: faecal-contaminated meat Faeco-oral: ingestion of filariform larvae | Consumption Hunting Butchering | ||
Pentastomidia spp. | Pentastomiasis | Foodborne: infective larvae in meat Faeco-oral: ingestion of eggs Direct contact with infected animal tissues and respiratory secretions | Consumption Hunting Butchering | ||
Sarcocystis spp. | Sarcocystosis | Foodborne: infective sarcocysts in meat from intermediate host or faecal-contaminated meat from definitive host Faeco-oral: ingestion of oocysts from definitive host | Consumption Hunting Butchering | ||
Spirometra spp. | Sparganosis | Foodborne: infective larvae in meat from the second intermediate host | Consumption |
Suidae: (Tanaka et al. 1997) Japan | |
Strongyloides spp. | Strongyloidiasis | Transcutaneous or mucosal: infective larvae from faeces that penetrate skin or mucous membranes | Hunting Butchering | ||
Taenia spp. | Taeniasis | Foodborne: infective larvae in meat /viscera from intermediate host | Consumption | ||
Toxoplasma gondii
| Toxoplasmosis | Foodborne: infective cysts in meat from the intermediate host or faecal-contaminated meat from definitive host Faeco-oral: ingestion of oocysts from definitive host | Consumption Hunting Butchering |
Suidae: (Choi et al. 1997) South Korea
Sciuridae: (Alvarado-Esquivel et al. 2008) Mexico
Felidae: (Carme et al. 2009) French Guiana | |
Trichinella spp. | Trichinellosis | Foodborne: infective cysts in meat | Consumption |
Suidae: (Cui et al. 2011) China; (De Bruyne et al. 2006; Ranque et al. 2000) France; (García et al. 2005) Chile; (Gołab and Sadkowska-Todys 2005) Poland; (Greenbloom et al. 1996) Canada; (Jongwutiwes et al. 1998; Kusolsuk et al. 2010) Thailand; (Owen et al. 2005) Papua New Guinea; (Rodríguez et al. 2004) Spain
Cervidae: (Ramasoota 1991) Thailand
Ursidae: (Ancelle et al. 2005; Schellenberg et al. 2003) Canada; (Hall et al. 2012; Hill et al. 2005) USA; (Khamboonruang 1991) Thailand; (Yamaguchi 1991) Japan
Squamata: (Khamboonruang 1991) Thailand | |
Trichuris spp. | Trichuriasis | Foodborne: faecal-contaminated meat Faeco-oral: ingestion of embryonated eggs | Consumption Hunting Butchering |