Background
Methods
Synthesising theory: some key considerations
Methods of systematic review
Intervention name | Description of intervention | Country | Targeted grade and age of participant | Integration | Report |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
4Rs (Reading Writing, Respect and Resolution) | A literacy-based social-emotional learning curriculum for elementary school students. There are two components: (1) a seven-unit, 21–35 lesson literacy-based curriculum in conflict resolution and social-emotional learning for children in primary school (to grade 5); and (2) intensive professional development for teachers. | USA | Kindergarten to grade 5 (ages 5–11) | Each unit uses children’s literature is used to help students understand anger and develop skills in listening, cooperation, assertiveness, and negotiation. Additionally, 4Rs aims to develop literacy skills in children to capitalise on the mutual positive effect that social-emotional and academic learning have on each other. | Aber 2011 [61] |
Brown 2010 [51] | |||||
Flay 2009 [36] | |||||
Jones 2008 [52] | |||||
Jones 2010 [75] | |||||
Jones 2011 [59] | |||||
Sung 2015 [76] | |||||
Bullying Literature Project | This programme aims to reduce bullying by introducing themes related to bullying through children’s literature. It also provides an opportunity for children to role-model practical skills to address or avoid bullying. | USA | Grade 4 (ages 9–10) | The Bullying Literature Project integrates themes related to bullying into the children’s literature used within a standard English curriculum. | Couch 2015 [77] |
Wang 2015 [78] | |||||
Wang 2017 [79] | |||||
DRACON | This programme uses drama to develop cognitive understanding of conflict and bullying and to empower students to manage their own conflict, both personally and within the broader school community. | Australia | Primary and secondary school students (ages 5–18) | Conflict literacy is taught through ‘enhanced forum theatre’ and other drama techniques. | Malm 2007 [60] |
English classes (no name) | Teachers were trained, and working in pairs in the summer, they developed integrated health/English material, with a specific emphasis on the prevention of drug and alcohol use. | USA | Grades 8 and 9 (ages 13–15) | Health topics were infused into English classes. English was chosen as it was felt to be the subject into which non-traditional concepts could be discussed and is taken by all students. | Holcomb 1993 [66] |
Hashish and Marijuana | The goal of the curriculum is to develop scientific knowledge of hashish and marijuana and to strengthen students’ problem-solving and decision-making skills through both didactic and participatory learning approaches. | Israel | Upper secondary school (ages 15–18) | The programme was entirely integrated into chemistry classes, where lessons around hash and marijuana teach the chemical aspects of the drugs. Behaviour change was addressed through more participatory teaching methods. | Zoller 1981 [80] |
Infused-Life Skills Training (I-LST) | This intervention integrates the messaging of standard life skills training (self-image and self-improvement, decision-making, smoking, marijuana, alcohol, etc.) into core academic classes like English, science, maths, and so forth for healthier behaviours, including reduced substance use. | USA | Middle/junior high school (ages 12–15) | The entire interventions hinges on the effective infusion of health messaging into the core academic curriculum. | Bechtel 2006 [67] |
Kids, Adults Together (KAT) | This programme has a classroom component in which children learn about alcohol, a parent evening in which students prepare presentations for parents and a take-home DVD about alcohol that is to be watched with parents for normalisation of reduced alcohol use. | UK | Grades 5 and 6 (ages 10–12) | The classroom curriculum is delivered across many subjects and students develop academic skills alongside understanding of alcohol at every opportunity. For example, in arts classes, students will learn design skills by making anti-alcohol posters. | Segrott 2015 [71] |
Learning to Read in a Healing Classroom | The intervention has two components delivered specifically to active treatment schools: teacher learning circles, which are opportunities for teachers to learn from master educators about classroom practices that enhance growth and development, and teacher resource materials, which included literacy components and social-emotional learning components. These resource materials are intended to integrate social-emotional learning alongside learning to read. Materials were provided in French. | Democratic Republic of Congo | Years 3–5 (ages 8–11) | The classroom component includes materials to support teachers in creating safe and supportive learning environments, as well as using literature to teach students emotional regulation, self-expression and how to interact with peers. | Torrente 2015 [81] |
Aber 2017 [82] | |||||
Linking the Interests of Families and Teachers (LIFT) | The programme aims to reduce future delinquency by positively rewarding and reinforcing good behaviours. The intervention includes classroom, playground and family components. | USA | Grades 1 and 5 (ages 6–7 and 10–11) | The fifth grade classroom component also develops study skills that align with the fifth grade curricula. | DeGarmo 2009 [83] |
Eddy 2000 [84] | |||||
Eddy 2015 [85] | |||||
Reid 1999 [86] | |||||
Reid 2002 [87] | |||||
Peaceful Panels | Throughout art classes, students participated in anti-bullying lessons (from the Second Step program for eighth grade students on empathy and communication in handling a grievance) and comic-making lessons. They then prepared artwork to demonstrate their understanding of how to resolve conflict. | USA | Grades 8 and 9 (ages 13–15) | Conflict resolution lessons were integrated fully within art classes and creation of art was used as a medium to reflect on learning. | Wales 2013 [88] |
Positive Action | Positive Action is a social-emotional and character development programme aimed at encouraging positive behaviours through positive thoughts and actions. Lessons cover six units: self-concept; positive actions for mind and body; positive social-emotional actions; managing oneself; being honest with oneself; and continually improving oneself. | USA | Kindergarten to grade 12 (ages 5–18) | The methods of education used promote active learning and learning skills development alongside behaviour change. Teachers are also encouraged to tie lessons into academic content. | Beets 2008 [89] |
Beets 2009 [90] | |||||
Flay 2009 [36] | |||||
Flay 2010 [58] | |||||
Lewis 2012 [91] | |||||
Malloy 2015 [92] | |||||
Promoting Alternative Thinking Strategies (PATHS) | PATHS aims to develop social and emotional competencies in children for reduced aggression and behaviour problems. Throughout the elementary school years, students receive lessons grouped under three units: readiness and self-control; feelings and relationships; and inter-personal problem solving. | USA | Kindergarten to grade 5 (ages 5–11) | Both reading and writing are bridged to PATHS in most lessons by including supplementary suggestions for teachers to utilise such things as quality children’s literature to reinforce lesson concepts. Further, teachers can directly tie PATHS concepts to English, social studies/history and other subject areas. | Crean 2013 [93] |
Flay 2009 [36] | |||||
Greenberg 2006 [62] | |||||
Kusché 2012 [94] | |||||
Raising Healthy Children | A four-component (school, student, peer and family) intervention that promotes positive youth development by targeting risk and protective factors at different stages of development. The focus is around prosocial bonding, social-emotional learning, and the development of problem-solving skills. | USA | Grades 1–8 (ages 6–14) | Staff were trained to promote reading as part of school intervention strategies. Also, in grades 4–6, there were after-school study groups and group-based workshops in high school, all of which aimed to increase academic achievement | Brown 2005 [69] |
Catalano 2003 [95] | |||||
Roots of Empathy | A programme that brings a visiting baby and their parent into a classroom as a springboard for learning empathy. Students learn messages of social inclusion, respect, how to build consensus, how to contribute to a safe and caring classroom, and develop emotional literacy. | Australia, Canada, UK | Grades 1–9 (ages 6–15) | Connections with literacy, writing, art, music, mathematics and science are made. Lessons may involve literature to encourage children to explore their own emotions and experiences. Children may also make artwork to reflect these feelings, which is often compiled and used in follow-up activities. | Cain 2008 [64] |
Gordon 2003 [96] | |||||
Hanson 2008 [97] | |||||
Second Step | The intervention was delivered by teachers after implementation training. The dose includes 15 weeks of classroom lessons taught weekly or every 2 weeks throughout the school year for 3 years. The intervention consists of manualised content including didactic lessons, group activities, and multimedia content including modelling of skills. | USA | Grade 6 (ages 11–12) | Students receive academic homework integration assignments, and teachers are encouraged to connect lessons to current events. | Espelage 2013 [98] |
Espelage 2015a [99] | |||||
Espelage 2015b [100] | |||||
Farrell 2015 [101] | |||||
Low 2016 [102] | |||||
Steps to Respect | A bullying prevention programme that has both a classroom curriculum aimed at teaching emotional intelligence, bullying prevention and bystander skills to children and a schoolwide component that trains teachers and administrators to change policies around disciplining bullying and providing mentoring to prevent future occurrences | USA | Grades 3–6 (ages 8–12) | In the classroom curriculum, children’s literature is used to frame lessons and develop social-emotional and anti-bullying skills | Brown 2011 [70] |
Frey 2009 [103] | |||||
The Gatehouse Project | Through teaching a curriculum and establishing a school-wide adolescent health team, Gatehouse aims to: build a sense of security and trust in students; enhance skills and opportunities for good communication; and build a sense of positive regard through participation in school life. | Australia | Grade 8 (ages 13–14) | The program adopts a critical literacy approach. Concepts are taught using literature, poetry, song, film and visual materials. There is a deliberate link made between the programme’s goals and academic goals. | Bond 2008 [104] |
Patton 2000 [65] | |||||
Patton 2003 [105] | |||||
Youth Matters | Youth Matters promotes the development of healthy relationships between students, staff and schools. It also promoted skills around social resistance and social competency through a curriculum. The curricula also emphasised both the bully and the victim perspective. | USA | Grades 4 and 5 (ages 9–11) | Each module uses a 30–40-page story that is intended to help schools meet academic standards in both health education and English. | Jenson 2007 [106] |
Data extraction
Quality appraisal
Intervention name | Clarity | Plausibility and feasibility | Testability | Ownership | Generalisability | Overall score (%) | |||||||||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Constructs defined | Clear pathways from inputs to outcomes | Theory logical (pathways logical) | Empirical evidence in support of theory | Evidence of empirical testing of the theory | Theory developed by practitioners | Theory developed by community members | Theory presented as general | Theory describes its application to different contexts | Authors prevent evidence of a theory’s generalisability | ||||||||||||
CB | TT | CB | TT | CB | TT | CB | TT | CB | TT | CB | TT | CB | TT | CB | TT | CB | TT | CB | TT | ||
4Rs Aber 2011 | N | N | N | Y | Y | Y | Y | Y | Y | Y | Y | Y | N | N | Y | N | Y | N | N | N | 55 |
Brown 2010 | Y | N | Y | N | Y | Y | Y | Y | Y | Y | Y | N | N | N | Y | N | Y | N | N | N | 55 |
Flay 2009 | Y | Y | Y | Y | Y | Y | N | N | Y | Y | Y | N | N | N | Y | Y | N | N | N | N | 55 |
Jones 2008 | Y | Y | N | Y | Y | Y | Y | Y | Y | Y | Y | N | N | N | Y | Y | N | Y | N | Y | 70 |
Jones 2010 | N | Y | Y | Y | Y | Y | Y | Y | Y | Y | Y | N | N | N | Y | Y | Y | N | Y | N | 70 |
Jones 2011 | N | Y | N | Y | Y | Y | Y | Y | Y | Y | Y | N | N | N | Y | Y | Y | N | N | N | 60 |
Sung 2015 | N | Y | N | N | N | Y | Y | N | Y | N | Y | N | N | N | Y | N | Y | N | N | N | 35 |
Bullying Literature Project Couch 2015 | N | N | N | N | N | N | Y | Y | Y | Y | N | N | N | N | Y | Y | N | N | N | N | 30 |
Wang 2015 | Y | Y | Y | Y | Y | Y | Y | N | Y | Y | N | N | N | N | Y | N | N | N | N | N | 50 |
Wang 2017 | Y | Y | Y | Y | Y | Y | Y | N | N | Y | N | N | N | N | N | Y | N | N | N | N | 50 |
DRACON Malm 2007 | N | Y | N | Y | Y | Y | N | N | N | Y | Y | Y | Y | N | Y | N | Y | N | Y | N | 55 |
English classes (no name) Holcomb 1993 | N | Y | N | Y | N | Y | N | N | N | Y | Y | N | N | N | N | Y | Y | N | N | N | 35 |
Hashish and Marijuana Zoller, 1981 | N | Y | N | Y | N | Y | N | N | Y | N | N | N | N | N | N | Y | N | N | N | N | 25 |
I-LST Bechtel 2006 | N | N | N | N | Y | N | Y | N | Y | N | N | N | N | N | Y | Y | N | N | N | N | 25 |
KAT Segrott 2015 | N | N | N | Y | N | Y | N | Y | Y | Y | N | N | N | N | Y | Y | N | N | N | N | 35 |
Learning to Read in a Healing Classroom Torrente 2015 | Y | Y | Y | Y | Y | Y | Y | Y | Y | Y | Y | Y | N | N | N | N | Y | Y | Y | Y | 90 |
Aber 2017 | Y | Y | Y | Y | Y | Y | Y | Y | Y | Y | Y | Y | N | N | N | N | Y | Y | Y | Y | 90 |
LIFT DeGarmo 2009 | Y | N | Y | Y | Y | Y | Y | Y | Y | Y | N | N | N | N | Y | Y | N | N | Y | N | 60 |
Eddy 2000 | N | N | N | Y | Y | Y | Y | N | Y | N | N | N | N | N | N | Y | N | Y | N | N | 35 |
Eddy 2015 | N | Y | Y | N | Y | Y | Y | Y | Y | Y | N | N | N | N | Y | Y | Y | N | N | N | 55 |
Reid 1999 | Y | Y | Y | Y | Y | Y | Y | Y | Y | Y | Y | N | N | N | Y | Y | N | N | N | N | 65 |
Reid 2002 | N | N | N | Y | N | Y | Y | N | Y | Y | Y | N | N | N | Y | Y | Y | N | N | N | 45 |
Peaceful Panels Wales 2013 | N | N | N | Y | N | N | N | N | N | N | Y | N | N | N | Y | N | N | N | N | N | 15 |
Positive Action Beets 2008 | N | Y | N | Y | Y | Y | N | N | N | Y | N | N | N | N | Y | N | N | N | N | N | 30 |
Beets 2009 | N | N | N | N | N | N | Y | N | Y | N | N | N | N | N | Y | Y | N | N | N | N | 20 |
Flay 2009 | N | Y | N | Y | Y | Y | Y | Y | Y | Y | N | N | N | N | Y | Y | N | Y | N | Y | 60 |
Flay 2010 | N | Y | Y | Y | Y | Y | Y | N | Y | Y | Y | N | N | N | Y | Y | Y | N | N | N | 60 |
Lewis 2012 | N | Y | N | Y | N | Y | N | N | Y | N | N | N | N | N | N | Y | N | N | N | N | 25 |
Malloy 2014 | N | N | N | N | N | Y | N | N | Y | Y | N | N | N | N | Y | Y | N | N | N | N | 25 |
Malloy 2015 | N | N | N | N | N | Y | N | N | Y | Y | N | N | N | N | Y | Y | N | N | N | N | 25 |
PATHS Crean 2013 | N | Y | N | Y | Y | Y | Y | N | Y | Y | N | N | N | N | Y | Y | N | N | N | N | 45 |
Flay 2009 | Y | Y | N | N | N | N | Y | Y | Y | N | N | N | N | N | Y | Y | N | N | N | N | 35 |
Greenberg 2006 | Y | Y | Y | Y | Y | Y | Y | Y | Y | N | N | N | N | N | Y | Y | N | N | Y | N | 60 |
Kusché 2012 | N | Y | Y | N | Y | Y | Y | N | Y | N | N | N | N | N | Y | Y | N | N | Y | N | 45 |
Raising Healthy Children Brown 2005 | N | Y | Y | Y | Y | Y | Y | Y | Y | Y | N | N | N | N | Y | Y | Y | N | N | N | 60 |
Catalano 2003 | Y | N | Y | N | Y | N | Y | N | Y | Y | N | N | N | N | Y | Y | N | N | N | N | 40 |
Roots of Empathy Cain 2008 | N | Y | N | Y | Y | Y | Y | N | N | N | Y | N | N | N | Y | Y | N | N | N | N | 40 |
Gordon 2003 | N | Y | N | N | N | Y | Y | N | Y | Y | Y | N | N | N | Y | Y | N | N | N | Y | 45 |
Hanson 2008 | N | N | Y | N | Y | Y | Y | N | Y | Y | Y | N | N | N | Y | Y | N | N | Y | N | 50 |
Second Step Espelage 2013 | Y | Y | Y | Y | Y | Y | Y | Y | Y | Y | Y | Y | N | N | N | N | N | N | N | N | 60 |
Espelage 2015a | Y | Y | Y | Y | Y | Y | Y | Y | Y | Y | Y | Y | N | N | N | N | N | N | N | N | 60 |
Espelage 2015b | Y | Y | Y | Y | Y | Y | Y | Y | Y | Y | Y | Y | N | N | N | N | N | N | N | N | 60 |
Farrell 2015 | Y | Y | Y | Y | Y | Y | Y | Y | Y | Y | Y | Y | N | N | N | N | N | N | N | N | 60 |
Low 2016 | Y | Y | Y | Y | Y | Y | Y | Y | Y | Y | Y | Y | N | N | N | N | N | N | N | N | 60 |
Steps to Respect Brown 2011 | Y | Y | Y | N | Y | N | Y | Y | Y | Y | N | N | N | N | Y | Y | N | N | Y | N | 55 |
Frey 2009 | N | Y | Y | Y | Y | Y | Y | Y | Y | Y | N | N | N | N | Y | Y | N | N | N | N | 55 |
The Gatehouse Project Bond 2008 | N | N | N | Y | Y | Y | N | N | Y | Y | N | N | N | N | Y | Y | N | N | N | N | 35 |
Patton 2000 | N | Y | N | Y | Y | Y | Y | N | Y | N | N | Y | N | Y | Y | Y | Y | N | Y | N | 60 |
Patton 2003 | N | N | N | N | N | N | Y | N | Y | N | N | N | N | N | Y | Y | N | N | N | N | 20 |
Youth Matters Jenson 2007 | N | Y | N | Y | Y | Y | N | N | Y | Y | N | N | N | N | Y | Y | N | N | N | N | 40 |
Methods of theory synthesis
Within-intervention coding
Within-intervention synthesis
Across-intervention synthesis
First-order constructs | Second-order constructs | Third-order constructs | Overall social/psychological process (line of argument) |
---|---|---|---|
Academic platform used to simultaneously build academic and health skills | Degree of integration of academic and health curricula (full or partial) | Eroding boundaries between health and academic education | Eroding boundaries at multiple and mutually reinforcing levels—by integrating academic and health education, by promoting stronger, more affective relationships between teachers and students, by generalising learning from classrooms to the wider school environment, and by ensuring consistent messaging between schools and families—will lead to the development of a community of engaged students oriented towards pro-social behaviour and away from substance use, violence and other risk behaviours. |
Health curricula bridged into academic curricula, with academic curricula sometimes intended to reinforce health messages and vice versa | |||
Decreasing time during the school day for health education due to an emphasis on academic achievement (measured through standardised test scores) | Pragmatic rationale for integration | ||
Mutually reinforcing effect of improved academic and health outcomes | Scientific rationale for integration | ||
Students being less resistant to health messaging in integrated curricula | Additional rationale for integration | ||
Integrated curriculum providing opportunities for repetition | |||
Opportunities for experiential learning provided | |||
Teachers’ internalisation of curriculum’s messages | Normalisation of prosocial behaviours through teacher internalisation of curricula | Eroding boundaries between teachers and students | |
Teachers’ role-modelling of curriculum’s promoted behaviours | |||
Forming bonds between prosocial peers and adults and acceptance of behaviours demonstrated within these relationships | |||
Establishment of good relationships between students and teachers | Establishing student connectedness to the classroom through positive teacher-student relationships | ||
Rewards for prosocial behaviours being given to students | Positive reinforcement of prosocial behaviours | Eroding boundaries between classroom and the wider school | |
Students internalising prosocial beliefs and feeling positive about themselves following the demonstration of prosocial behaviours, leading to more prosocial behaviours | |||
Students having the opportunity to practice valued skills at multiple levels | |||
A sense of connectedness and bonding with the school is linked to overall emotional wellbeing and security experienced by students in school | Establishing student connectedness to the school | ||
Connectedness to school fosters better academic learning as the school becomes a more positive environment that students are invested in | |||
Role modelling of prosocial behaviours at home | Normalisation of prosocial behaviours | Eroding boundaries between schools and families | |
Parents aware of curricula and expect prosocial behaviours (e.g. conflict resolution skills) to be practiced at home | Provision of opportunities for practical skill development |
Results
Study quality
Programme inputs
Teaches specific positive actions for the whole self: the physical, intellectual, social, and emotional areas. Together, these make up the comprehensive set of skills for successful learning and living…The program trains teachers and parents to identify, teach, and reinforce positive thoughts, actions, and feelings about themselves by students and others in the school, leading to continual reinforcement of positive actions and enhanced student bonding with parents and school. ([58], pp.476–477)
The approach of embedding social-emotional learning and conflict resolution lessons in a balanced literacy delivery strategy, and research tying together the social-emotional and academic domains, support our expectation for longer term effects on behavior and academic achievement. ([59], p. 536)
Mechanisms of change: improving health by eroding boundaries
Eroding boundaries between health and academic education
Language arts (both reading and writing) are bridged to PATHS in most lessons by including supplementary suggestions for teachers to utilize such things as quality children’s literature to reinforce lesson concepts. Further, one of the chapters in the Instructional Manual provides many ideas for how teachers can directly tie PATHS concepts to language arts, social studies/history, and other subject areas. ([62], p. 404)
Evolved in response to the tension between the movement to reform education between standards-based accountability with its focus on academic achievement, on the one hand (e.g., the policy and practice zeitgeist promoted by the No Child Left Behind Act of 2001), and social and character development, on the other. ([51], p. 156)
Schools can be reassured by scientific and pragmatic evidence that time spent implementing [social-emotional learning (SEL)] will enhance the academic success of students (…) Current research shows that SEL programs contribute to the academic success of students as well as to their health and wellbeing. ([64], p. 54)
There are signs that health and educational agendas are converging. There has, for example, been an increasing interest in the forms of schooling that might best meet the educational needs of early adolescents. The call for reform (…) has been driven by the identification of alienation or disengagement of young people as the major barrier to educational success. ([65], p. 588)
Optimal learning occurs when information is embedded in meaningful contexts, applications and multiple representations are provided, and there are opportunities for learners to generate personally relevant questions. ([67], p. 220)
Eroding boundaries between teachers and students
Teacher–student relationships are a joint function of the unique characteristics of children (e.g., their social– cognitive attributions and problem-solving style) and teachers (e.g., their social– emotional abilities and experiences of job stress and burnout) and the cultural norms, values, and practices they bring to the relationship and to the classroom. Together these characteristics contribute to the climate of the classroom. ([51], p.154)
Once strong bonds are established, individuals will tend to behave in a manner consistent with the norms and values of the individuals and groups with whom they associate. In turn, stronger pro-social bonds support positive belief formation against antisocial behaviors (e.g. adolescent substance use). ([69], p. 700)
When teachers embrace and practice the program’s principles and implementation strategies, they establish a set of expectations and norms for behaviors in their classrooms, and children begin using those skills and behaviors. ([51], p. 157)
Because bullying is a social process strongly influenced by the reactions and behaviors of peers, the program seeks to change attitudes about the acceptability of bullying through clearly labeling bullying behavior as unfair and wrong, increasing empathy for students who are bullied, and educating students about their responsibilities as bystanders to bullying. ([70], p. 425)
Eroding boundaries between classroom and the wider school
Ecologically oriented programs emphasize not only the teaching of skills, but also the creation of meaningful real-life opportunities to use skills and the establishment of structures to provide reinforcement for effective skill application. ([62], p. 399)
PATHS highlights that, ‘internalization is the primary process utilized in the development of an individual’s conscience. When the outcome is positive, the conscience…works as a powerful system through which a person can ‘take ownership’ and achieve mastery over his or her own impulses and actions.’ ([62], p. 401)
The extent to which an individual has robust social ties is likely to have a direct influence on self-concept and sense of belonging, and, in turn, reactions to social stressors. Conversely, the experience of ongoing insecurity and threat has a detrimental effect on emotional wellbeing. An individual’s capacity to deal with adversity is in part dependent on the availability of support in the immediate social environment, as well as the skills he or she has for making appropriate connections at times of stress. ([65], p. 587)
Where parents or other community members are actively involved in programmes, they are exposed to the same health-behaviour messages as younger participants and, if they accept those messages, can reinforce them through their own actions, behaviours and attitudes. ([71], p. 3)
Additional mechanisms to reduce substance use
The program targets the reduction of students’ health-compromising and other negative behaviors (e.g., substance abuse, violence, disciplinary referrals, suspensions), while simultaneously enhancing health-enhancing and other positive behaviors (e.g., honesty, time management) and behavioral attributions directed at the self (…) and social relationships (…), with these leading to improved school-related performance. ([72], p. 2)
Hypothesised intervention outcomes
Designed to target the enhancement of positive behaviors and behavioral attributions directed at the self (e.g. self-responsibility, positive self-concept) and social relationships (e.g. conflict resolution, respect, kindness), while simultaneously reducing students’ negative behavioral problems (e.g. substance abuse, disciplinary referrals, suspensions), with these leading to improved school-related performance (e.g. improved attendance, academic achievement). ([72], p. 73)