Background
Methods
STUDY ONE: acute supplementation
Participants
Familiarization session
Testing procedures
Supplementation and assessment protocol
STUDY TWO: chronic supplementation
Participants
Familiarization testing
Testing procedures
Testing methodology
Anaerobic capacity
Anthropometry
Blood collection procedures
Blood chemistry
Food frequency
Muscle biopsies
Muscle creatine analysis
Side effects
Strength testing and bench press test
Strength training procedures
Supplementation protocol
Total body water
Statistical analysis
Data analysis
Results
Study 1: acute supplementation
Plasma creatine and nitrate
Hematologic profile
Time (hours) | ||||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Group | 0 | 0.5 | 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | Interaction | p-Level | |
Hemodynamics | ||||||||||
HR | PLA | 59.7 ± 8.2 | 60.1 ± 7.4 | 58.8 ± 7.7 | 57.2 ± 5.3 | 58.0 ± 7.4 | 54.8 ± 6.4 | 56.0 ± 7.3 | Group | 0.23 |
(b/min) | CrM | 63.8 ± 11.8 | 60.9 ± 5.7 | 59.9 ± 8.2 | 58.2 ± 7.0 | 56.3 ± 6.8 | 59.6 ± 8.8 | 58.5 ± 10.0 | Time | 0.15 |
CrN-Low | 60.0 ± 8.4 | 57.9 ± 8.3 | 58.8 ± 9.0 | 56.3 ± 6.0 | 56.3 ± 6.0 | 56.9 ± 5.7 | 55.1 ± 5.9 | Group × Time | 0.59 | |
CrN-High | 59.1 ± 9.0 | 56.7 ± 7.4 | 57.9 ± 5.8 | 58.6 ± 3.8 | 58.0 ± 4.1 | 56.8 ± 4.7 | 57.5 ± 3.8 | |||
Systolic BP | PLA | 114.8 ± 6.2 | 113.9 ± 5.6 | 112.6 ± 4.9 | 116.5 ± 6.7 | 116.0 ± 4.8 | 117.2 ± 8.5 | 115.5 ± 5.2 | Group | 0.37 |
(mm Hg) | CrM | 114.6 ± 5.1 | 112.6 ± 4.4 | 112.2 ± 4.2 | 114.9 ± 5.3 | 112.9 ± 6.1 | 113.1 ± 5.8 | 114.9 ± 3.8 | Time | 0.02 |
CrN-Low | 115.9 ± 6.1 | 113.1 ± 4.1 | 111.9 ± 5.2 | 113.5 ± 6.9 | 114.6 ± 6.9 | 114.62 ± 5.0 | 112.5 ± 3.5 | Group × Time | 0.39 | |
CrN-High | 115.4 ± 6.7 | 114.2 ± 5.5 | 111.4 ± 6.6 | 112.5 ± 6.0 | 113.5 ± 6.2 | 113.7 ± 9.7 | 114.2 ± 7.0 | |||
Diastolic BP | PLA | 73.1 ± 6.6 | 71.9 ± 7.5 | 72.2 ± 6.6 | 72.3 ± 7.3 | 73.1 ± 6.6 | 74.0 ± 5.5 | 72.3 ± 5.7 | Group | 0.66 |
(mm Hg) | CrM | 70.3 ± 6.6 | 71.5 ± 7.8 | 72.5 ± 4.1 | 73.9 ± 5.4 | 72.8 ± 6.0 | 73.9 ± 5.0 | 74.5 ± 4.0 | Time | 0.29 |
CrN-Low | 72.2 ± 6.5 | 73.5 ± 5.4 | 71.9 ± 6.1 | 75.5 ± 5.4 | 74.3 ± 6.2 | 74.5 ± 4.6 | 73.1 ± 4.1 | Group × Time | 0.18 | |
CrN-High | 73.1 ± 7.9 | 77.1 ± 4.8 | 73.9 ± 6.5 | 74.5 ± 5.2 | 73.7 ± 6.1 | 72.2 ± 7.9 | 72.9 ± 4.8 | |||
Lipids | ||||||||||
Total-C | PLA | 153.8 ± 28.4 | 156.2 ± 31.1 | 161.0 ± 31.8 | 162.5 ± 32.9 | 164.5 ± 31.2 | 164.6 ± 36.7 | 165.0 ± 36.1 | Group | 0.59 |
(mg/dl) | CrM | 156.8 ± 29.3 | 157.2 ± 29.3 | 160.7 ± 34.3 | 157.2 ± 31.4 | 159.3 ± 30.4 | 160.3 ± 32.8 | 160.2 ± 28.3 | Time | 0.06 |
CrN-Low | 154.5 ± 27.6 | 154.2 ± 28.0 | 155.7 ± 31.7 | 156.0 ± 27.8 | 158.6 ± 28.9 | 158.5 ± 26.8 | 159.5 ± 27.9 | Group × Time | 0.77 | |
CrN-High | 158.3 ± 30.0 | 163.2 ± 27.0 | 162.3 ± 32.6 | 159.9 ± 26.9 | 163.9 ± 32.6 | 162.9 ± 26.8 | 163.5 ± 27.9 | |||
HDL-C | PLA | 55.8 ± 15.3 | 58.2 ± 15.6 | 58.8 ± 17.4 | 59.9 ± 16.1 | 61.0 ± 15.7 | 61.6 ± 17.0 | 62.2 ± 17.9 | Group | 0.29 |
(mg/dl) | CrM | 53.9 ± 17.1 | 54.1 ± 16.7 | 55.6 ± 18.4 | 55.1 ± 17.2 | 56.0 ± 17.1 | 56.9 ± 17.6 | 56.4 ± 18.8 | Time | 0.001 |
CrN-Low | 51.0 ± 14.1 | 50.8 ± 15.6 | 51.2 ± 15.0 | 52.1 ± 14.9 | 53.8 ± 14.5 | 54.9 ± 15.2 | 55.3 ± 15.8 | Group × Time | 0.64 | |
CrN-High | 52.9 ± 17.5 | 54.7 ± 17.0 | 54.2 ± 16.8 | 54.2 ± 17.3 | 55.4 ± 16.9 | 55.2 ± 16.3 | 55.4 ± 17.7 | |||
Total-C/HDL-C | PLA | 2.9 ± 0.8 | 2.8 ± 0.8 | 2.9 ± 0.8 | 2.8 ± 0.8 | 2.8 ± 0.8 | 2.8 ± 0.8 | 2.8 ± 0.8 | Group | 0.40 |
Ratio | CrM | 3.1 ± 1.0 | 3.1 ± 0.9 | 3.1 ± 0.9 | 3.0 ± 0.8 | 3.0 ± 0.8 | 3.0 ± 0.8 | 3.1 ± 0.9 | Time | 0.09 |
(mg/dl) | CrN-Low | 3.3 ± 1.2 | 3.3 ± 1.1 | 3.3 ± 1.0 | 3.2 ± 1.0 | 3.2 ± 1.0 | 3.1 ± 1.0 | 3.1 ± 1.0 | Group × Time | 0.62 |
CrN-High | 3.3 ± 1.4 | 3.3 ± 1.4 | 3.3 ± 1.4 | 3.3 ± 1.5 | 3.3 ± 1.4 | 3.3 ± 1.5 | 3.3 ± 1.5 | |||
LDL-C | PLA | 94.0 ± 26.3 | 96.5 ± 27.6 | 98.1 ± 28.1 | 100.1 ± 29.1 | 102.4 ± 32.6 | 102.5 ± 32.3 | 102.2 ± 32.0 | Group | 0.72 |
(mg/dl) | CrM | 99.1 ± 25.6 | 99.0 ± 24.1 | 102.5 ± 27.7 | 101.1 ± 24.7 | 102.0 ± 23.7 | 103.8 ± 26.5 | 102.5 ± 22.9 | Time | 0.06 |
CrN-Low | 97.2 ± 23.0 | 97.1 ± 22.4 | 98.8 ± 24.0 | 100.0 ± 22.4 | 102.4 ± 23.1 | 102.6 ± 21.6 | 104.4 ± 22.5 | Group × Time | 0.67 | |
CrN-High | 102.7 ± 27.1 | 105.3 ± 25.8 | 105.0 ± 29.8 | 104.1 ± 26.6 | 101.5 ± 43.7 | 106.0 ± 27.0 | 105.4 ± 25.8 | |||
Triglyceride | PLA | 79.2 ± 26.2 | 82.1 ± 27.9 | 78.8 ± 24.8 | 73.9 ± 23.5 | 72.6 ± 21.0 | 71.8 ± 22.1 | 71.1 ± 22.6 | Group | 0.60 |
(mg/dl) | CrM | 90.7 ± 33.1 | 88.1 ± 34.1 | 86.6 ± 30.9 | 76.2 ± 27.3 | 72.5 ± 25.9 | 73.7 ± 27.2 | 68.9 ± 22.6 | Time | 0.01 |
CrN-Low | 88.3 ± 36.9 | 94.5 ± 37.9 | 90.6 ± 34.7 | 79.4 ± 25.3 | 75.4 ± 20.4 | 73.2 ± 18.3 | 72.8 ± 17.9 | Group × Time | 0.66 | |
CrN-High | 79.4 ± 25.6 | 86.1 ± 34.1 | 81.8 ± 29.1 | 73.0 ± 18.3 | 70.9 ± 19.5 | 71.9 ± 19.4 | 70.2 ± 20.3 | |||
Glucose | PLA | 95.8 ± 10.3 | 103.0 ± 10.4 | 92.1 ± 8.0 | 92.2 ± 5.5 | 91.5 ± 4.0 | 85.9 ± 26.1 | 91.9 ± 4.3 | Group | 0.33 |
(mg/dl) | CrM | 96.3 ± 9.9 | 85.3 ± 27.0 | 91.4 ± 6.0 | 89.8 ± 5.1 | 91.4 ± 5.4 | 91.6 ± 5.6 | 91.2 ± 4.9 | Time | 0.01 |
CrN-Low | 96.3 ± 5.5 | 102.6 ± 8.1 | 94.1 ± 5.9 | 91.8 ± 6.5 | 91.2 ± 6.8 | 92.9 ± 6.7 | 92.1 ± 6.2 | Group × Time | 0.12 | |
CrN-High | 94.7 ± 7.5 | 96.1 ± 6.4 | 91.4 ± 6.2 | 91.1 ± 4.0 | 90.6 ± 5.4 | 91.3 ± 4.2 | 83.8 ± 25.3 | |||
Hepatorenal function | ||||||||||
ALP | PLA | 7.9 ± 6.5 | 11.5 ± 8.0 | 11.9 ± 8.8 | 13.3 ± 9.1 | 13.9 ± 9.9 | 14.3 ± 9.4 | 16.9 ± 14.1 | Group | 0.23 |
(U/L) | CrM | 14.7 ± 9.1 | 15.9 ± 11.7 | 15.9 ± 10.4 | 16.8 ± 12.9 | 20.5 ± 14.4 | 25.4 ± 15.3 | 24.6 ± 14.9 | Time | 0.001 |
CrN-Low | 12.3 ± 9.3 | 16.3 ± 10.3 | 20.3 ± 10.8 | 18.7 ± 11.5 | 21.7 ± 10.9 | 20.6 ± 10.2 | 22.8 ± 10.5 | Group × Time | 0.65 | |
CrN-High | 12.8 ± 8.1 | 17.5 ± 9.5 | 16.1 ± 8.2 | 17.2 ± 11.2 | 16.2 ± 9.7 | 17.2 ± 15.6 | 20.1 ± 18.1 | |||
ALT | PLA | 19 ± 8.2 | 19.5 ± 9.1 | 20.2 ± 9.6 | 19.6 ± 8.5 | 20.2 ± 9.7 | 20.3 ± 9.3 | 20.2 ± 9.3 | Group | 0.70 |
(U/L) | CrM | 20.3 ± 7.3 | 20.5 ± 7.7 | 21.4 ± 7.8 | 21.1 ± 8.4 | 21.1 ± 8.4 | 21.0 ± 7.9 | 21.2 ± 8.7 | Time | 0.001 |
CrN-Low | 20.1 ± 7.7 | 20.63 ± 8.4 | 20.7 ± 8.5 | 20.8 ± 8.1 | 21.3 ± 8.2 | 21.0 ± 8.3 | 21.1 ± 8.0 | Group × Time | 0.66 | |
CrN-High | 21.2 ± 8.5 | 21.3 ± 8.3 | 21.5 ± 8.7 | 21.9 ± 8.6 | 21.1 ± 8.5 | 22.6 ± 8.8 | 22.7 ± 8.8 | |||
AST | PLA | 24.7 ± 4.9 | 23.8 ± 5.3 | 25.1 ± 4.7 | 25.4 ± 5.8 | 25.5 ± 5.8 | 25.2 ± 6.2 | 25.5 ± 6.1 | Group | 0.40 |
(U/L) | CrM | 25.9 ± 7.9 | 26.5 ± 8.8 | 27.1 ± 8.9 | 26.0 ± 9.1 | 26.3 ± 8.8 | 26.5 ± 8.6 | 27.0 ± 9.5 | Time | 0.12 |
CrN-Low | 24.1 ± 6.1 | 24.6 ± 6.3 | 23.9 ± 5.9 | 24.7 ± 6.1 | 24.8 ± 5.3 | 24.3 ± 5.6 | 24.6 ± 5.4 | Group × Time | 0.64 | |
CrN-High | 28.0 ± 15.6 | 28.8 ± 16.3 | 28.7 ± 16.4 | 28.8 ± 14.8 | 29.6 ± 15.2 | 28.9 ± 14.8 | 29.8 ± 16.0 | |||
CK | PLA | 260 ± 222 | 264 ± 231 | 266 ± 219 | 262 ± 210 | 259 ± 211 | 254 ± 200 | 247 ± 193 | Group | 0.40 |
(U/L) | CrM | 160 ± 220 | 262 ± 222 | 263 ± 212 | 240 ± 207 | 249 ± 195 | 242 ± 189 | 237 ± 185 | Time | 0.06 |
CrN-Low | 265 ± 275 | 270 ± 273 | 272 ± 287 | 267 ± 271 | 266 ± 273 | 256 ± 250 | 255 ± 252 | Group × Time | 0.51 | |
CrN-High | 490 ± 931 | 505 ± 958 | 497 ± 940 | 475 ± 864 | 470 ± 863 | 453 ± 809 | 470 ± 894 | |||
LDH | PLA | 168 ± 40 | 158 ± 24 | 170 ± 27 | 172 ± 26 | 169 ± 22 | 171 ± 30 | 171 ± 27 | Group | 0.08 |
(U/L) | CrM | 168 ± 21 | 164 ± 31 | 168 ± 31 | 162 ± 23 | 164 ± 28 | 165 ± 31 | 172 ± 29 | Time | 0.39 |
CrN-Low | 146 ± 25 | 165 ± 31 | 155 ± 19 | 161 ± 23 | 160 ± 18 | 158 ± 22 | 159 ± 18 | Group × Time | 0.40 | |
CrN-High | 169 ± 36 | 179 ± 42 | 183 ± 40 | 167 ± 47 | 196 ± 74 | 176 ± 32 | 180 ± 27 | |||
BUN | PLA | 14.4 ± 4.8 | 14.0 ± 4.2 | 14.0 ± 4.3 | 13.4 ± 4.5 | 13.2 ± 4.2 | 12.8 ± 4.1 | 12.3 ± 3.8 | Group | 0.28 |
(mg/dl) | CrM | 15.2 ± 5.0 | 14.8 ± 4.6 | 14.6 ± 4.7 | 13.7 ± 4.5 | 13.4 ± 4.3 | 13.1 ± 4.3 | 12.6 ± 4.0 | Time | 0.001 |
CrN-Low | 13.5 ± 4.8 | 13.0 ± 4.5 | 12.8 ± 4.5 | 12.2 ± 4.1 | 12.1 ± 4.1 | 11.6 ± 3.8 | 11.4 ± 3.8 | Group × Time | 0.76 | |
CrN-High | 14.6 ± 5.1 | 14.5 ± 5.22 | 14.1 ± 4.9 | 13.7 ± 5.1 | 13.2 ± 4.6 | 12.9 ± 4.3 | 12.7 ± 4.3 | |||
Creatinine | PLA | 1.00 ± 0.15 | 0.99 ± 0.16 | 0.99 ± 0.15 | 0.98 ± 0.15 | 0.98 ± 0.15 | 0.98 ± 0.17 | 0.95 ± 0.14d
| Group | 0.001 |
(mg/dl) | CrM | 0.99 ± 0.18 | 1.04 ± 0.17 | 1.04 ± 0.19 | 1.01 ± 0.19 | 0.99 ± 0.17 | 0.99 ± 0.17 | 1.00 ± 0.17 | Time | 0.001 |
CrN-Low | 1.01 ± 0.19 | 1.08 ± 0.18 | 1.09 ± 0.17a,d
| 1.05 ± 0.16a
| 1.05 ± 0.17a
| 1.02 ± 0.18a
| 1.01 ± 1.16 | Group × Time | 0.001 | |
CrN-High | 1.05 ± 0.14a
| 1.11 ± 0.15a,b
| 1.17 ± 0.14a,b,c
| 1.12 ± 0.16a,b,c
| 1.06 ± 0.16a
| 1.03 ± 0.13a
| 1.02 ± 0.14 | |||
BUN: Creatinine | PLA | 14.4 ± 4.2 | 14.2 ± 4.1 | 14.3 ± 4.1 | 13.7 ± 3.9 | 13.5 ± 3.6 | 13.1 ± 3.4 | 12.9 ± 3.2 | Group | 0.11 |
(mg/dl) | CrM | 15.3 ± 4.3 | 14.5 ± 4.3 | 14.2 ± 3.9 | 13.7 ± 4.1 | 13.6 ± 4.2 | 13.4 ± 4.1 | 12.7 ± 3.5 | Time | 0.001 |
CrN-Low | 13.7 ± 5.4 | 12.2 ± 4.6 | 11.9 ± 4.6 | 11.8 ± 4.3 | 11.8 ± 4.4 | 11.7 ± 4.1 | 11.5 ± 4.0 | Group × Time | 0.08 | |
CrN-High | 14.0 ± 4.8 | 13.2 ± 4.6 | 12.0 ± 3.9 | 12.3 ± 4.0 | 12.6 ± 3.9 | 12.5 ± 3.8 | 12.5 ± 3.9 |
Hemodynamic profile
Study 2: chronic supplementation
Compliance, side effects, training, and diet
Dietary characteristics
Clinical chemistry panels, plasma creatine plasma nitrates, muscle creatine
Day | ||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Variable | Group | Baseline | 7 | 28 | p-level | |
Body Weight | PLA | 77.3 ± 11.9 | 77.6 ± 12.1 | 77.4 ± 12.7 | Group | 0.003 |
(kg) | CrM | 81.7 ± 13.2 | 82.4 ± 13.4 | 82.6 ± 14.0 | Time | 0.002 |
CrN-Low | 72.0 ± 9.7 | 72.2 ± 9.9 | 72.7 ± 10.0 | Group × Time | 0.29 | |
CrN-High | 90.8 ± 13.4 | 90.8 ± 13.2 | 92.0 ± 14.3 | |||
Fat Mass | PLA | 12.7 ± 6.3 | 12.6 ± 6.3 | 12.7 ± 6.3 | Group | 0.02 |
(kg) | CrM | 12.9 ± 5.3 | 13.0 ± 5.5 | 13.2 ± 5.2 | Time | 0.17 |
CrN-Low | 8.9 ± 4.7 | 8.7 ± 4.6 | 9.1 ± 4.7 | Group × Time | 0.90 | |
CrN-High | 16.5 ± 6.9 | 16.2 ± 6.4 | 16.6 ± 7.4 | |||
Fat-Free Mass | PLA | 58.1 ± 8.0 | 58.5 ± 8.0 | 58.3 ± 8.3 | Group | 0.01 |
(kg) | CrM | 62.4 ± 8.7 | 62.5 ± 8.8 | 62.9 ± 9.2 | Time | 0.02 |
CrN-Low | 56.9 ± 7.4 | 57.4 ± 7.3 | 57.3 ± 7.3 | Group × Time | 0.50 | |
CrN-High | 67.4 ± 8.1 | 67.7 ± 8.2 | 68.5 ± 8.2 | |||
Body Fat | PLA | 17.8 ± 6.9 | 17.1 ± 6.7 | 17.2 ± 6.7 | Group | 0.07 |
(%) | CrM | 16.7 ± 4.0 | 16.8 ± 4.3 | 16.8 ± 3.7 | Time | 0.24 |
CrN-Low | 13.1 ± 5.4 | 12.8 ± 5.2 | 13.2 ± 5.2 | Group × Time | 0.78 | |
CrN-High | 19.2 ± 5.9 | 18.7 ± 5.5 | 18.8 ± 6.3 | |||
Total Body Water | PLA | 51.3 ± 4.5 | 50.6 ± 5.1 | 52.5 ± 6.9 | Group | 0.18 |
(%) | CrM | 51.4 ± 3.3 | 50.8 ± 3.7 | 49.4 ± 8.4 | Time | 0.64 |
CrN-Low | 52.9 ± 4.6 | 54.1 ± 5.1 | 52.7 ± 4.2 | Group × Time | 0.47 | |
CrN-High | 50.6 ± 6.5 | 48.8 ± 4.1 | 49.0 ± 4.7 | |||
Lipids, Glucose, Nitrate, and Creatine | ||||||
Total-C | PLA | 165.0 ± 33.4 | 161.5 ± 38.8 | 164.6 ± 38.8 | Group | 0.19 |
(mg/dl) | CrM | 174.4 ± 25.5 | 175.4 ± 27.8 | 183.4 ± 41.1 | Time | 0.38 |
CrN-Low | 151.9 ± 35.8 | 149.7 ± 29.5 | 150.0 ± 37.5 | Group × Time | 0.83 | |
CrN-High | 162.7 ± 25.1 | 155.9 ± 23.8 | 160.7 ± 29.1 | |||
HDL-C | PLA | 49.2 ± 11.4 | 50.6 ± 10.2 | 50.3 ± 12.8 | Group | 0.62 |
(mg/dl) | CrM | 51.8 ± 15.2 | 54.7 ± 15.5 | 55.2 ± 17.4 | Time | 0.36 |
CrN-Low | 48.6 ± 15.7 | 48.3 ± 15.1 | 47.9 ± 12.8 | Group × Time | 0.85 | |
CrN-High | 46.7 ± 10.7 | 47.2 ± 12.3 | 48.7 ± 10.6 | |||
Total-C/HDL-C | PL | 3.45 ± 0.71 | 3.23 ± 0.64 | 3.30 ± 0.59 | Group | 0.82 |
Ratio | CrM | 3.70 ± 1.46 | 3.50 ± 1.34 | 3.69 ± 1.58 | Time | 0.24 |
(mg/dl) | CrN-Low | 3.26 ± 0.81 | 3.32 ± 1.04 | 3.29 ± 1.05 | Group × Time | 0.74 |
CrN-High | 3.62 ± 0.82 | 3.47 ± 0.88 | 3.44 ± 0.94 | |||
LDL-C | PLA | 93.4 ± 23.4 | 91.7 ± 29.6 | 95.8 ± 34.6 | Group | 0.34 |
(mg/dl) | CrM | 103.8 ± 33.3 | 106.6 ± 33.5 | 112.2 ± 49.0 | Time | 0.36 |
CrN-Low | 86.3 ± 22.6 | 84.8 ± 23.7 | 87.3 ± 28.7 | Group × Time | 0.88 | |
CrN-High | 95.2 ± 25.0 | 93.4 ± 22.9 | 94.3 ± 28.4 | |||
Triglyceride | PLA | 109.1 ± 52.5 | 98.2 ± 36.9 | 94.2 ± 19.1 | Group | 0.63 |
(mg/dl) | CrM | 114.5 ± 60.6 | 93.1 ± 30.9 | 112.0 ± 42.6 | Time | 0.16 |
CrN-Low | 87.5 ± 43.2 | 90.7 ± 49.1 | 85.8 ± 30.7 | Group × Time | 0.69 | |
CrN-High | 104.8 ± 47.1 | 85.6 ± 39.2 | 97.2 ± 49.8 | |||
Glucose | PLA | 102.0 ± 18.6 | 102.1 ± 15.3 | 94.9 ± 12.6 | Group | 0.74 |
(mg/dl) | CrM | 97.5 ± 13.9 | 99.7 ± 15.1 | 100.4 ± 16.8 | Time | 0.70 |
CrN-Low | 96.1 ± 8.5 | 96.1 ± 7.9 | 96.4 ± 17.9 | Group × Time | 0.27 | |
CrN-High | 97.1 ± 9.4 | 93.2 ± 5.2 | 96.0 ± 9.4 | |||
Nitrate | PLA | 4.5 ± 2.0 | 5.1 ± 3.3 | 9.0 ± 15.3 | Group | 0.001 |
(μmol/L) | CrM | 4.9 ± 3.6 | 3.8 ± 1.8 | 4.5 ± 1.8 | Time | 0.001 |
CrN-Low | 5.6 ± 3.1 | 64.8 ± 30.9a,b
| 13.9 ± 13.9 | Group × Time | 0.001 | |
CrN-High | 4.3 ± 1.6 | 72.0 ± 47.3a,b
| 21.5 ± 28.9b
| |||
Creatine | PLA | 131.1 ± 92.2 | 143.5 ± 131.9 | 150.6 ± 152.0 | Group | 0.04 |
(μmol/L) | CrM | 165.2 ± 94.4c
| 504.9 ± 422.8d
| 231.2 ± 126.1 | Time | 0.001 |
CrN-Low | 73.0 ± 56.4 | 170.4 ± 153.7 | 147.9 ± 95.3 | Group × Time | 0.01 | |
CrN-High | 120.3 ± 99.8 | 241.3 ± 131.9 | 251.9 ± 406.4 |
Day | ||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Marker | Group | 0 | 7 | 28 | p-level | |
Hepatorenal | ||||||
ALPS | PLA | 11.2 ± 14.6 | 10.5 ± 10.7 | 12.4 ± 10.9 | Group | 0.44 |
(U/L) | CrM | 11.4 ± 9.5 | 12.0 ± 10.4 | 11.0 ± 7.8 | Time | 0.36 |
CrN-Low | 15.5 ± 11.4 | 16.2 ± 11.9 | 19.5 ± 15.9 | Group × Time | 0.85 | |
CrN-High | 12.0 ± 7.1 | 13.6 ± 6.1 | 14.3 ± 11.7 | |||
ALT | PLA | 27.2 ± 8.6 | 30.2 ± 13.8 | 32.1 ± 30.6 | Group | 0.24 |
(U/L) | CrM | 28.9 ± 16.6 | 25.1 ± 10.0 | 32.7 ± 22.9 | Time | 0.06 |
CrN-Low | 21.3 ± 6.7 | 19.9 ± 4.4 | 22.4 ± 6.7 | Group × Time | 0.70 | |
CrN-High | 28.7 ± 13.2 | 30.0 ± 15.7 | 36.8 ± 23.2 | |||
AST | PLA | 31.2 ± 13.3 | 30.1 ± 11.6 | 29.5 ± 13.4 | Group | 0.90 |
(U/L) | CrM | 28.3 ± 10.2 | 26.4 ± 7.7 | 32.5 ± 12.3 | Time | 0.56 |
CrN-Low | 26.0 ± 7.0 | 30.6 ± 25.3 | 26.0 ± 6.0 | Group × Time | 0.47 | |
CrN-High | 26.4 ± 5.9 | 28.7 ± 7.0 | 32.0 ± 7.6 | |||
CK | PLA | 252 ± 128 | 294 ± 399 | 206 ± 161 | Group | 0.79 |
(U/L) | CrM | 285 ± 169 | 345 ± 319 | 409 ± 373 | Time | 0.35 |
CrN-Low | 283 ± 169 | 480 ± 987 | 243 ± 136 | Group × Time | 0.56 | |
CrN-High | 284 ± 171 | 349 ± 203 | 424 ± 287 | |||
LDH | PLA | 226 ± 180 | 167 ± 29 | 158 ± 34 | Group | 0.93 |
(U/L) | CrM | 185 ± 62 | 172 ± 39 | 184 ± 48 | Time | 0.20 |
CrN-Low | 175 ± 50 | 173 ± 41 | 166 ± 29 | Group × Time | 0.23 | |
CrN-High | 173 ± 29 | 176 ± 30 | 182 ± 39 | |||
BUN | PLA | 16.3 ± 3.6 | 15.6 ± 5.2 | 15.7 ± 4.9 | Group | 0.64 |
(mg/dl) | CrM | 15.3 ± 5.5 | 15.2 ± 4.9 | 16.3 ± 6.1 | Time | 0.48 |
CrN-Low | 14.9 ± 3.8 | 13.3 ± 3.9 | 13.5 ± 4.6 | Group × Time | 0.64 | |
CrN-High | 14.6 ± 3.2 | 14.8 ± 2.7 | 15.7 ± 5.8 | |||
Creatinine | PLA | 1.18 ± 0.26 | 1.19 ± 0.33 | 1.15 ± 0.27 | Group | 0.97 |
(mg/dl) | CrM | 1.15 ± 0.46 | 1.26 ± 0.36 | 1.23 ± 0.39 | Time | 0.001 |
CrN-Low | 1.09 ± 0.25 | 1.21 ± 0.31 | 1.23 ± 0.31 | Group × Time | 0.12 | |
CrN-High | 1.12 ± 0.18 | 1.15 ± 0.23 | 1.20 ± 0.23 | |||
BUN: Creatinine | PLA | 14.2 ± 3.7 | 13.9 ± 6.8 | 13.6 ± 3.1 | Group | 0.78 |
(mg/dl) | CrM | 13.7 ± 3.6 | 12.8 ± 5.3 | 14.0 ± 6.1 | Time | 0.07 |
CrN-Low | 14.1 ± 4.2 | 11.4 ± 3.8 | 11.3 ± 3.4 | Group × Time | 0.13 | |
CrN-High | 13.3 ± 3.8 | 13.3 ± 3.3 | 13.4 ± 4.8 | |||
Blood cell characteristics | ||||||
MCV | PLA | 92.2 ± 3.1 | 91.7 ± 3.7 | 91.6 ± 3.8 | Group | 0.79 |
(fL) | CrM | 93.0 ± 3.9 | 93.7 ± 3.9 | 93.6 ± 4.7 | Time | 0.47 |
CrN-Low | 91.7 ± 3.8 | 91.8 ± 4.0 | 92.3 ± 4.2 | Group × Time | 0.49 | |
CrN-High | 93.3 ± 3.0 | 93.4 ± 3.1 | 88.7 ± 17.7 | |||
MCH | PLA | 30.4 ± 1.7 | 30.5 ± 1.3 | 31.0 ± 2.3 | Group | 0.45 |
(pg/cell) | CrM | 30.6 ± 1.4 | 31.2 ± 1.5 | 31.0 ± 2.6 | Time | 0.23 |
CrN-Low | 30.6 ± 1.7 | 31.6 ± 2.1 | 31.3 ± 2.2 | Group × Time | 0.92 | |
CrN-High | 31.2 ± 0.9 | 31.3 ± 1.4 | 31.5 ± 1.2 | |||
MCHC | PLA | 32.9 ± 1.2 | 33.3 ± 1.7 | 33.8 ± 1.8 | Group | 0.40 |
(g/dl) | CrM | 32.9 ± 0.7 | 33.3 ± 1.5 | 33.1 ± 1.9 | Time | 0.53 |
CrN-Low | 33.3 ± 0.8 | 34.5 ± 3.4 | 33.9 ± 1.7 | Group × Time | 0.66 | |
CrN-High | 33.5 ± 0.7 | 33.5 ± 1.6 | 32.2 ± 6.0 | |||
RBCDW | PLA | 13.2 ± 0.5 | 13.1 ± 0.9 | 13.1 ± 0.3 | Group | 0.02 |
(%) | CrM | 13.5 ± 0.9 | 13.7 ± 0.9 | 13.9 ± 0.8 | Time | 0.11 |
CrN-Low | 13.6 ± 0.6 | 13.4 ± 0.6 | 13.5 ± 0.7 | Group × Time | 0.66 | |
CrN-High | 12.8 ± 0.6 | 13.2 ± 0.6 | 13.1 ± 0.4 | |||
Platelet Count | PLA | 206 ± 36 | 188 ± 32 | 208 ± 70 | Group | 0.35 |
(x103/μL) | CrM | 234 ± 57 | 226 ± 91 | 255 ± 51 | Time | 0.56 |
CrN-Low | 218 ± 69 | 183 ± 50 | 194 ± 68 | Group × Time | 0.39 | |
CrN-High | 220 ± 61 | 412 ± 713 | 224 ± 59 | |||
WBC | PLA | 6.2 ± 1.7 | 5.3 ± 1.5 | 6.2 ± 1.1 | Group | 0.72 |
(x103/μL) | CrM | 6.0 ± 1.7 | 6.6 ± 1.3 | 6.4 ± 1.3 | Time | 0.58 |
CrN-Low | 6.2 ± 1.6 | 5.9 ± 1.8 | 5.4 ± 1.3 | Group × Time | 0.18 | |
CrN-High | 5.9 ± 1.4 | 5.5 ± 1.6 | 6.1 ± 1.6 | |||
RBC | PLA | 5.2 ± 0.8 | 5.01 ± 0.83 | 4.8 ± 0.6 | Group | 0.25 |
(x106/μL) | CrM | 5.3 ± 0.6 | 5.60 ± 0.97 | 5.1 ± 0.8 | Time | 0.09 |
CrN-Low | 5.0 ± 0.5 | 5.11 ± 0.95 | 4.9 ± 0.7 | Group × Time | 0.65 | |
CrN-High | 5.5 ± 0.8 | 5.08 ± 0.51 | 5.1 ± 0.5 | |||
Hematocrit | PLA | 47.7 ± 7.1 | 46.0 ± 8.2 | 44.0 ± 4.5 | Group | 0.16 |
(%) | CrM | 49.5 ± 6.7 | 52.5 ± 9.7 | 47.6 ± 8.4 | Time | 0.51 |
CrN-Low | 46.2 ± 5.5 | 47.1 ± 10.3 | 44.8 ± 7.1 | Group × Time | 0.44 | |
CrN-High | 51.2 ± 7.8 | 47.5 ± 5.2 | 51.7 ± 15.4 | |||
Hemoglobin | PLA | 15.7 ± 2.5 | 15.3 ± 2.7 | 14.8 ± 1.2 | Group | 0.17 |
(g/dl) | CrM | 16.3 ± 2.1 | 20.1 ± 10.2 | 15.7 ± 2.8 | Time | 0.63 |
CrN-Low | 15.4 ± 2.1 | 16.1 ± 3.1 | 15.2 ± 2.3 | Group × Time | 0.19 | |
CrN-High | 17.2 ± 2.7 | 15.9 ± 1.4 | 18.7 ± 9.5 |
Treatment | |||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
PLA | CrM | CrN-Low | CrN-High | Chi-Square | |||
Cholesterol | No Change | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0.33 | |
Normal Base; Exceed Day 7 | 10 | 8 | 12 | 13 | |||
Normal Base; Exceed Day 28 | 1 | 1 | 0 | 0 | |||
Normal Day7; Exceed Day 28 | 0 | 2 | 1 | 0 | |||
HDL-C | No Change | 6 | 9 | 10 | 10 | 0.72 | |
Normal Base; Exceed Day 7 | 2 | 1 | 0 | 0 | |||
Lipids & glucose | Normal Base; Exceed Day 28 | 1 | 0 | 1 | 1 | ||
Normal Day7; Exceed Day 28 | 2 | 1 | 2 | 2 | |||
LDL-C | No Change | 9 | 10 | 13 | 12 | 0.30 | |
Normal Base; Exceed Day 7 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | |||
Normal Base; Exceed Day 28 | 2 | 1 | 0 | 0 | |||
Normal Day7; Exceed Day 28 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 1 | |||
Triglycerides | No Change | 11 | 11 | 13 | 13 | 0.31 | |
Normal Base; Exceed Day7 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | |||
Normal Base; Exceed Day28 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | |||
Normal Day7; Exceed Day28 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | |||
Glucose | No Change | 10 | 9 | 11 | 11 | 0.56 | |
Normal Base; Exceed Day 7 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 0 | |||
Normal Base; Exceed Day 28 | 0 | 1 | 0 | 0 | |||
Normal Day7; Exceed Day 28 | 0 | 0 | 1 | 2 | |||
LDH | No Change | 9 | 9 | 12 | 11 | 0.26 | |
Normal Base; Exceed Day 7 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 0 | |||
Normal Base; Exceed Day 28 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 2 | |||
Normal Day7; Exceed Day 28 | 1 | 2 | 1 | 0 | |||
Creatine | No Change | 7 | 7 | 10 | 11 | 0.75 | |
Kinase | Normal Base; Exceed Day 7 | 2 | 1 | 1 | 0 | ||
Normal Base; Exceed Day 28 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | |||
Normal Day7, Exceed Day 28 | 2 | 3 | 2 | 2 | |||
Muscle | Creatinine | No Change | 11 | 9 | 11 | 11 | 0.32 |
Normal Base; Exceed Day 7 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | |||
Normal Base; Exceed Day 28 | 0 | 1 | 0 | 2 | |||
Normal Day7; Exceed Day 28 | 0 | 1 | 2 | 0 | |||
Kidney | BUN | No Change | 10 | 8 | 11 | 12 | 0.37 |
Normal Base; Exceed Day 7 | 0 | 0 | 1 | 0 | |||
Normal Base; Exceed Day 28 | 0 | 2 | 0 | 0 | |||
Normal Day7; Exceed Day 28 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | |||
ALP | No Change | 11 | 11 | 13 | 13 | 0.32 | |
Normal Base; Exceed Day 7 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | |||
Normal Base; Exceed Day 28 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | |||
Normal Day7; Exceed Day 28 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | |||
Liver | ALT | No Change | 11 | 9 | 12 | 11 | 0.49 |
Normal Base; Exceed Day 7 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | |||
Normal Base; Exceed Day 28 | 0 | 2 | 1 | 2 | |||
Normal Day7; Exceed Day 28 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | |||
AST | No Change | 8 | 8 | 12 | 8 | 0.54 | |
Normal Base; Exceed Day 7 | 1 | 0 | 1 | 0 | |||
Normal Base; Exceed Day 28 | 1 | 1 | 0 | 2 | |||
Normal Day7; Exceed Day 28 | 1 | 2 | 0 | 3 |
Anthropometry
Bench press performance, anaerobic sprint and Wingate test
Group | Day 0 | Day 28 | Interactions | p-level | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Bench press performance | |||||
Max reps | PLA | 10.8 ± 2.9 | 13.0 ± 4.8 | Group | 0.83 |
(@70 % 1RM) | CrM | 12.0 ± 5.5 | 15.0 ± 7.1 | Time | 0.001 |
CrN-Low | 11.9 ± 2.7 | 14.0 ± 3.7 | Group × Time | 0.55 | |
CrN-High | 11.5 ± 3.6 | 14.8 ± 3.7 | |||
Workload [kg] | PLA | 1474.1 ± 373.6 | 1753.2 ± 548.5 | Group | 0.17 |
(wt x reps) | CrM | 1827.0 ± 926.3 | 2255.0 ± 1121.5 | Time | 0.001 |
CrN-Low | 1616.5 ± 491.3 | 1877.3 ± 535.4 | Group × Time | 0.10 | |
CrN-High | 1927.3 ± 830.2 | 2516.5 ± 867.2 | |||
Peak power | PLA | 425.5 ± 101.1 | 443.3 ± 107.1 | Group | 0.10 |
(W) | CrM | 452.9 ± 113.7 | 521.5 ± 119.9 | Time | 0.001 |
CrN-Low | 440.2 ± 76.0 | 481.1 ± 88.4 | Group × Time | 0.57 | |
CrN-High | 492.4 ± 95.0 | 553.3 ± 98.4 | |||
Average power | PLA | 357.7 ± 88.4 | 382.4 ± 93.2 | Group | 0.03 |
(W) | CrM | 423.8 ± 120.5 | 456.4 ± 105.0 | Time | 0.001 |
CrN-Low | 371.6 ± 70.4 | 396.4 ± 73.4 | Group × Time | 0.82 | |
CrN-High | 451.2 ± 91.8 | 489.4 ± 89.7 | |||
Average velocity | PLA | 0.50 ± 0.09 | 0.53 ± 0.11 | Group | 0.10 |
(m/s) | CrM | 0.55 ± 0.09 | 0.62 ± 0.11 | Time | 0.001 |
CrN-Low | 0.61 ± 0.83 | 0.65 ± 0.12 | Group × Time | 0.74 | |
CrN-High | 0.54 ± 0.11 | 0.61 ± 0.15 | |||
Anaerobic sprint performance | |||||
Mean power | PLA | 668.1 ± 172.0 | 682.7 ± 142.3 | Group | 0.03 |
(W) | CrM | 684.2 ± 129.2 | 720.5 ± 141.5 | Time | 0.12 |
CrN-Low | 670.8 ± 124.8 | 708.9 ± 106.9 | Group × Time | 0.46 | |
CrN-High | 807.9 ± 91.0 | 797.7 ± 61.4 | |||
Peak power | PLA | 1,464.4 ± 379.7 | 1,486.8 ± 322.5 | Group | 0.13 |
(W) | CrM | 1,548.4 ± 351.6 | 1,611.4 ± 440.5 | Time | 0.11 |
CrN-Low | 1,497.4 ± 270.1 | 1,565.0 ± 278.1 | Group × Time | 0.95 | |
CrN-High | 1,739.0 ± 275.5 | 1,783.7 ± 306.8 | |||
Total work | PLA | 6,119.6 ± 991.9 | 6,423.7 ± 896.4 | Group | 0.55 |
(J) | CrM | 7,188.1 ± 2195.3 | 6,886.7 ± 744.7 | Time | 0.76 |
CrN-Low | 6,760.7 ± 1618.4 | 6,817.5 ± 1290.8 | Group × Time | 0.71 | |
CrN-High | 6,716.3 ± 1532.6 | 6,884.4 ± 1495.3 |