Introduction
Objectives
Methods
Design
Setting
Participants
Data collection and classification
Statistical analyses
Ethics
Results
Drug |
n
| (%) |
---|---|---|
Benzodiazepines | 696 | (85.0) |
Clonazepam | 411 | (50.2) |
Diazepam | 110 | (13.4) |
Alprazolam | 80 | (9.8) |
Oxazepam | 64 | (7.8) |
Flunitrazepam | 23 | (2.8) |
Nitrazepam | 16 | (2.0) |
Flurazepam | 1 | (0.1) |
Unspecified | 73 | (8.9) |
Methadone | 60 | (7.3) |
Buprenorphine | 53 | (6.5) |
Opioids class Aa | 35 | (4.3) |
Morphine | 25 | (3.1) |
Oxycodone | 9 | (1.1) |
Pethidine | 1 | (0.1) |
Z-drugs | 26 | (3.2) |
Zopiclone | 20 | (2.4) |
Zolpidem | 6 | (0.7) |
Opioids class Bb | 22 | (2.7) |
Codeine | 15 | (1.8) |
Tramadol | 7 | (0.9) |
Ethylmorphine | 1 | (0.1) |
Methylphenidate | 11 | (1.3) |
Pregabalin | 6 | (0.7) |
Quetiapine | 6 | (0.7) |
Others | 6 | (0.7) |
Ketamine | 3 | (0.4) |
Gabapentin | 2 | (0.2) |
Modafinil | 1 | (0.1) |
Total | 819 | (100) |
Benzodiazepines n (%) | Z-drugs n (%) | Methadone n (%) | Buprenorphine n (%) | Opioids class Aa n (%) | Opioids class Bb n (%) | Methylphenidate n (%) | Pregabalin n (%) | Quetiapine n (%) | Others n (%) | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Benzodiazepines | NA | 10 (38.5) | 30 (50.0) | 28 (52.8) | 14 (40.0) | 5 (22.7) | 2 (18.2) | 3 (50.0) | 1 (16.7) | 3 (50.0) |
Prescription opioidsc | 74 (10.6) | 4 (15.4) | NA | NA | NA | NA | 1 (9.1) | – | – | 1 (16.7) |
Other prescription drugsd | 19 (2.7) | NA | – | 2 (3.8) | 2 (5.7) | 2 (9.1.) | NA | NA | NA | NA |
Heroin | 329 (47.3) | 3 (11.5) | 13 (21.7) | 9 (17.0) | 14 (40.0) | 4 (18.2) | – | 4 (66.7) | – | 2 (33.3) |
Amphetamine | 129 (18.5) | – | 4 (6.7) | 11 (20.8) | 4 (11.4) | – | 2 (18.2) | 2 (33.3) | – | 2 (33.3) |
Cocaine | 22 (3.2) | – | – | – | – | 4 (18.2) | – | – | 2 (33.3) | 1 (16.7) |
GHB | 33 (4.7) | – | 1 (1.7) | – | – | 1 (4.5) | – | – | – | – |
Cannabis | 63 (9.1) | 1 (3.8) | 3 (5.0) | 5 (9.4) | 3 (8.6) | 3 (13.6) | 1 (9.1) | – | 1 (16.7) | 1 (16.7) |
Other illegal drugse | 42 (6.0) | – | – | 2 (3.8) | – | 2 (9.1) | 1 (9.1) | – | – | – |
Any illegal drug | 476 (68.4) | 3 (11.5) | 19 (31.7) | 23 (43.4) | 21 (60.0) | 13 (59.1) | 4 (36.4) | 5 (83.3) | 2 (33.3) | 3 (50.0) |
Alcohol | 202 (29.0) | 11 (42.3) | 5 (8.3) | 12 (22.6) | 7 (20.0) | 6 (27.3) | 3 (27.3) | 2 (33.3) | 2 (33.3) | 1 (16.7) |
Total | 696 (100) | 26 (100) | 60 (100) | 53 (100) | 35 (100) | 22 (100) | 11 (100) | 6 (100) | 6 (100) | 6 (100) |
Benzodiazepines n (%) | Z-drugs n (%) | Methadone n (%) | Buprenorphine n (%) | Opioids class Aa n (%) | Opioids class Bb n (%) | Methylphenidate n (%) | Pregabalin n (%) | Quetiapine n (%) | Others n (%) | All casesc n (%) | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Gender | |||||||||||
Females | 162 (23.3) | 13 (50.0) | 12 (20.0) | 12 (22.6) | 5 (14.3) | 7 (31.8) | 3 (27.3) | 4 (66.7) | 4 (66.7) | 2 (33.3) | 190 (23.2) |
Males | 534 (76.7) | 13 (50.0) | 48 (80.0) | 41 (77.4) | 30 (85.7) | 15 (68.2) | 8 (72.7) | 2 (33.3) | 2 (33.3) | 4 (66.7) | 629 (76.8) |
Aged,e | 35 (28–46) | 49 (32–61) | 44 (36–50) | 37 (30–49) | 46 (33–54) | 37 (31–46) | 28 (23–39) | 37 (33–48) | 29 (19–37) | 40 (24–45) | 37 (28–47) |
Brought by ambulance | 375 (53.9) | 12 (46.2) | 34 (56.7) | 28 (52.8) | 24 (68.6) | 16 (72.7) | 6 (54.5) | 3 (50.0) | 5 (83.3) | 4 (66.7) | 449 (54.8) |
Time of presentation | |||||||||||
Nightf | 222 (31.9) | 11 (42.3) | 15 (25.0) | 13 (24.5) | 8 (22.9) | 5 (22.7) | 5 (45.5) | 1 (16.7) | 3 (50.0) | 2 (33.3) | 257 (31.4) |
Weekendg | 185 (26.6) | 10 (38.5) | 11 (18.3) | 17 (32.1) | 8 (22.9) | 6 (27.3) | 4 (36.4) | 5 (83.3) | 3 (50.0) | 1 (16.7) | 221 (27.0) |
Length of stayd,h | 4:39 (2:41–6:29) | 3:12 (2:01–4:07) | 4:39 (2:37–6:47) | 4:28 (2:30–6:55) | 3:19 (2:15–4:42) | 2:35 (1:42–4:49) | 2:00 (1:16–4:42) | 3:01 (1:54–4:45) | 2:44 (1:34–6:16) | 2:29 (2:09–3:26) | 4:31 (2:31–6:21) |
Treatmenti | 154 (22.1) | 7 (26.9) | 16 (26.7) | 6 (11.3) | 9 (25.7) | 7 (31.8) | 3 (27.3) | 1 (16.7) | – | 1 (16.7) | 183 (22.3) |
Naloxone | 117 (16.8) | 4 (15.4) | 11 (18.3) | 4 (7.5) | 8 (22.9) | 5 (22.7) | 1 (9.1) | – | – | 1 (16.7) | 133 (16.2) |
Flumazenil | 2 (0.3) | – | – | 1 (1.9) | – | – | – | – | – | – | 3 (0.4) |
Sedation | 11 (1.6) | 1 (3.8) | – | – | – | 1 (4.5) | 2 (18.2) | – | – | 1 (16.7) | 15 (1.8) |
Disposition | |||||||||||
Admitted somatic hospital | 118 (17.0) | 8 (30.8) | 18 (30.0) | 5 (9.4) | 7 (20.0) | 5 (22.7) | 3 (27.3) | 1 (16.7) | – | 3 (50.0) | 143 (17.5) |
Admitted psychiatric ward | 9 (1.3) | 2 (7.7) | 1 (1.7) | 1 (1.9) | 1 (2.9) | – | 2 (18.2) | – | 1 (16.7) | – | 14 (1.7) |
Medically discharged | 454 (65.2) | 13 (50.0) | 34 (56.7) | 37 (69.8) | 20 (57.1) | 10 (45.5) | 4 (36.4) | 5 (83.3) | 4 (66.7) | 3 (50.0) | 526 (64.2) |
Self-discharge | 115 (16.5) | 3 (11.5) | 7 (11.7) | 10 (18.9) | 7 (20.0) | 7 (31.8) | 2 (18.2) | – | 1 (16.7) | – | 136 (16.6) |
Total | 696 (100) | 26 (100) | 60 (100) | 53 (100) | 35 (100) | 22 (100) | 11 (100) | 6 (100) | 6 (100) | 6 (100) | 819 (100) |
Benzodiazepines n (%) | Z-drugs n (%) | Methadone n (%) | Buprenorphine n (%) | Opioids class Aa n (%) | Opioids class Bb n (%) | Methylphenidate n (%) | Pregabalin n (%) | Quetiapine n (%) | Others n (%) | All casesc n (%) | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Bradypnoea | |||||||||||
(RR < 10)d | 79 (11.4) | 2 (7.7) | 5 (8.3) | 3 (5.7) | 5 (14.3) | – | – | – | – | – | 84 (10.3) |
Tachycardia | |||||||||||
(HR > 99)d | 155 (22.3) | 4 (15.4) | 10 (16.7) | 11 (20.8) | 10 (28.6) | 6 (27.3) | 6 (54.5) | 1 (16.7) | 2 (33.3) | 3 (50.0) | 185 (22.6) |
Bradycardia | |||||||||||
(HR < 50)d | 13 (1.9) | – | – | 1 (1.9) | – | – | – | – | – | – | 13 (1.6) |
Hypertension | |||||||||||
(SBP ≥ 180) | 3 (0.4) | – | 1 (1.7) | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | 3 (0.4) |
Hypotension | |||||||||||
(SBP ≤ 90) | 29 (4.2) | – | 3 (5.0) | 4 (7.5) | 3 (8.6) | – | – | – | 1 (16.7) | – | 36 (4.4) |
Hyperthermia | |||||||||||
(tp ≥ 39.0) | 4 (0.6) | – | 1 (1.7) | – | – | – | – | – | – | 1 (16.7) | 5 (0.6) |
GCS scored,e | |||||||||||
15 | 231 (33.2) | 16 (61.5) | 13 (21.7) | 14 (26.4) | 13 (37.1) | 17 (77.3) | 6 (66.7) | 3 (50.0) | 6 (100) | 5 (83.3) | 283 (34.6) |
8–14 | 444 (63.8) | 10 (38.5) | 43 (71.7) | 39 (73.6) | 21 (60.0) | 4 (18.2) | 3 (33.3) | 2 (33.3) | – | 1 (16.7) | 509 (62.1) |
3–7 | 20 (2.9) | – | 4 (6.7) | – | 1 (2.9) | 1 (4.5) | – | 1 (16.7) | – | – | 24 (2.9) |
Vomiting | 12 (1.7) | 1 (3.8) | 5 (8.3) | 3 (5.7) | 1 (2.9) | 2 (9.1) | 1 (9.1) | – | – | 1 (16.7) | 22 (2.7) |
Headache | 15 (2.2) | 2 (7.7) | 1 (1.7) | 2 (3.8) | 1 (2.9) | 1 (4.5) | – | 1 (16.7) | – | 1 (16.7) | 19 (2.3) |
Anxiety | 17 (2.4) | 1 (3.8) | 1 (1.7) | 3 (5.7) | 1 (2.9) | 2 (9.1) | 2 (18.2) | – | 1 (16.7) | 2 (33.3) | 26 (3.2) |
Hallucinations | 8 (1.1) | 2 (7.7) | 2 (3.3) | 3 (5.7) | 2 (5.7) | – | 2 (18.2) | – | – | – | 16 (2.0) |
Agitation | 77 (11.1) | 1 (3.8) | 10 (16.7) | 9 (17.0) | 6 (17.1) | – | 5 (45.5) | – | – | 1 (16.7) | 95 (11.6) |
Psychosis | 12 (1.7) | 2 (7.7) | 2 (3.3) | 1 (1.9) | 3 (8.6) | 1 (4.5) | 4 (36.4) | – | – | – | 21 (2.6) |
Seizures | 4 (0.6) | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | 4 (0.5) |
Palpitations | 1 (0.1) | – | – | – | – | 1 (4.5) | 1 (9.1) | – | 3 (50.0) | 2 (33.3) | 7 (0.9) |
Chest pain | 11 (1.6) | – | – | – | 2 (5.7) | 1 (4.5) | – | – | 1 (16.7) | – | 14 (1.7) |
Arrhythmias | 2 (0.3) | 1 (3.8) | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | 3 (0.4) |
Total | 696 (100) | 26 (100) | 60 (100) | 53 (100) | 35 (100) | 22 (100) | 11 (100) | 6 (100) | 6 (100) | 6 (100) | 819 (100) |