Trained older men have larger left ventricular morphology and superior diastolic function than age-matched untrained yet healthy controls, determined by conventional echocardiography. |
The functional adaptations noted in older athletes are, in the main, maintained with chronological age from middle and into older age. |
Aerobic exercise is an effective non-pharmacological therapy to preserve cardiac function during ageing and is maintained with continuous exercise therapy. |
1 Introduction
2 Methods
2.1 Information Sources and Search Strategy
2.2 Inclusion Criteria
2.3 Study Selection and Data Extraction
2.4 Statistical Analyses
3 Results
3.1 Search Outcome
References | Study group (n) | Age (years) | Height (cm) | Mass (kg) | BMI (kg·m2) | BSA (m2) | HR (beats·min−1) | SBP (mmHg) | DBP (mmHg) | Study quality |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Child et al. [33] | Control (12) | 56.3 ± 7.8 | – | – | – | 1.93 ± 0.08 | 62 ± 11 | – | – | 12 |
Runners (9) | 53.7 ± 10.6 | – | – | – | 1.78 ± 0.13 | 49 ± 7 | – | – | ||
D’Andrea et al. [35] | Control (25) | 47.4 ± 2.2 | – | – | – | 1.88 ± 0.4 | 73 ± 8 | 126 ± 6 | 85 ± 3 | 14 |
Swimmers (40) | 48.2 ± 3.4 | – | – | – | 1.89 ± 0.5 | 50 ± 4 | 117 ± 9 | 79 ± 5 | ||
Giada et al. [42] | Control (12) | 58.0 ± 6.0 | – | – | – | 1.92 ± 0.1 | 69 ± 10 | 146 ± 17 | 83 ± 8 | 13 |
Cyclists (12) | 55.0 ± 5.0 | – | – | – | 1.86 ± 0.1 | 55 ± 6 | 139 ± 14 | 87 ± 8 | ||
Kozakova et al. [44] | Control (16) | 46.5 ± 16.0 | – | – | – | – | 82 ± 20 | 129 ± 12 | 67 ± 10 | 7 |
Runners, triathletes (16) | 53.1 ± 20.0 | – | – | – | – | 72 ± 8 | 135 ± 16 | 70 ± 12 | ||
Lee et al. [45] | Control (9) | 54.8 ± 4.3 | 182 ± 3 | 81.7 ± 5.0 | 24.8 ± 2.1 | – | 60 ± 4 | 114 ± 10 | 70 ± 10 | 13 |
Cyclists, triathletes, speed-skaters (12) | 53.8 ± 4.1 | 177 ± 7 | 75.1 ± 4.8 | 23.9 ± 2.1 | – | 57 ± 7 | 112 ± 10 | 69 ± 10 | ||
Lindsay and Dunn [46] | Control (45) | 52.0 | – | – | – | 1.83 ± 0.27 | – | 129 ± 17 | 77 ± 13 | 14 |
Runners (45) | 52.0 ± 11.4 | – | – | – | 1.88 ± 0.13 | – | 129 ± 16 | 77 ± 8 | ||
Maufrais et al. [50] | Control (26) | 56.0 ± 6.0 | 175 ± 6 | 80.9 ± 22.4 | 26.3 ± 0.2 | 1.95 ± 0.22 | 65 ± 10 | 128 ± 11 | 82 ± 7 | 14 |
Runners, triathletes, cyclists (35) | 54.0 ± 7.0 | 175 ± 14 | 73.7 ± 7.9 | 25.2 ± 8.6 | 1.88 ± 0.15 | 56 ± 9 | 127 ± 11 | 80 ± 9 | ||
Northcote et al. [54] | Control (17) | 56.0 ± 7.0 | 174 ± 8 | 74.0 ± 8.0 | 24.5 ± 3.5 | – | 72 ± 10 | 135 ± 23 | – | 12 |
Runners (18) | 56.0 ± 7.0 | 175 ± 5 | 64.0 ± 5.0 | 22.4 ± 0.1 | – | 51 ± 7 | 125 ± 15 | – | ||
Nottin et al. [55] | Control (14) | 55.9 ± 4.1 | 173 ± 4 | 80.4 ± 5.5 | – | 1.94 ± 0.08 | 73 ± 10 | 135 ± 9 | 83 ± 7 | 13 |
Cyclists (14) | 58.6 ± 4.8 | 173 ± 7 | 73.0 ± 9.4 | – | 1.86 ± 0.15 | 63 ± 6 | 141 ± 6 | 83 ± 8 | ||
Sagiv et al. [57] | Control (15) | 60.1 ± 1.1 | 173 ± 5 | 72.1 ± 3.0 | – | – | 81 ± 8 | 122 ± 6 | 82 ± 6 | 12 |
Aerobic athletes (15) | 59.3 ± 1.1 | 175 ± 7 | 71.4 ± 3.2 | – | – | 69 ± 9 | 117 ± 7 | 77 ± 10 | ||
Nishimura et al. [53] | Control (15) | 46.9 ± 3.3 | – | – | – | 1.62 ± 0.05 | 60 ± 8 | 127 ± 13 | 75 ± 9 | 14 |
Bicyclists (29) | 45.6 ± 2.3 | – | – | – | 1.78 ± 0.10 | 54 ± 7 | 120 ± 10 | 78 ± 8 | ||
Baldi et al. [29] | Control (20) | 65.7 ± 3.7 | 176 ± 4 | 77.5 ± 10.3 | 25.1 ± 2.6 | 1.96 ± 0.15 | 63 ± 9 | 140 ± 8 | 78 ± 17 | 11 |
Endurance athletes (19) | 65.2 ± 4.2 | 175 ± 6 | 70.1 ± 6.8 | 23.1 ± 1.8 | 1.82 ± 0.42 | 56 ± 6 | 126 ± 7 | 80 ± 6 | ||
Bouvier et al. [31] | Control (12) | 74.9 ± 2.4 | 175 ± 6 | 78.4 ± 11.0 | 25.8 ± 3.5 | 1.93 ± 0.13 | 69 ± 9 | 148 ± 14 | 81 ± 7 | 9 |
Orienteers, runners (10) | 72.8 ± 2.9 | 179 ± 3 | 72.5 ± 8.7 | 22.6 ± 2.1 | 1.90 ± 0.13 | 58 ± 11 | 151 ± 26 | 78 ± 7 | ||
Carrick-Ranson et al. [32] | Control (27) | 66.0 ± 5.0 | 176 ± 7 | 87.0 ± 16.0 | 28.0 ± 5.0 | – | 69 ± 11 | – | – | 11 |
Cyclists, runners, dual/triathletes (17) | 66.0 ± 4.0 | 176 ± 6 | 75.0 ± 10.0 | 24.0 ± 2.0 | – | 62 ± 10 | – | – | ||
Di Bello et al. [36] | Control (11) | 69.7 ± 8.4 | 169 ± 4 | 64.8 ± 9.5 | – | 1.80 ± 0.10 | 83 ± 21 | 145 ± 8 | 81 ± 3 | 13 |
Runners (12) | 65.7 ± 7.1 | 176 ± 8 | 69.2 ± 9.1 | – | 1.90 ± 0.20 | 68 ± 15 | 145 ± 6 | 81 ± 2 | ||
Galetta et al. [40] | Control (16) | 66.9 ± 4.6 | 177 ± 12 | 77.3 ± 8.7 | 24.6 ± 1.1 | – | 68 ± 7 | 134 ± 8 | 82 ± 4 | 15 |
Runners (16) | 67.6 ± 4.5 | 177 ± 15 | 74.8 ± 6.5 | 23.7 ± 0.7 | – | 54 ± 7 | 125 ± 6 | 79 ± 8 | ||
Galetta et al. [39] | Control (25) | 68.3 ± 3.2 | 176 ± 7 | 76.8 ± 5.6 | 24.5 ± 1.1 | – | 68 ± 6 | 133 ± 6 | 82 ± 4 | 15 |
Runners (25) | 69.4 ± 3.8 | 175 ± 7 | 75.9 ± 5.6 | 24.7 ± 0.7 | – | 54 ± 5 | 130 ± 5 | 81 ± 6 | ||
Gates et al. [41] | Control (11) | 65.0 ± 6.6 | 177 ± 7 | 85.0 ± 16.6 | – | 2.02 ± 0.17 | 59 ± 7 | 119 ± 17 | 74 ± 7 | 13 |
Aerobic athletes (12) | 68.0 ± 6.9 | 174 ± 3 | 74.0 ± 6.9 | – | 1.89 ± 0.17 | 48 ± 7 | 128 ± 17 | 76 ± 10 | ||
Gates et al. [41] | Control (24) | 51.0 ± 4.9 | 177 ± 5 | 85.0 ± 14.7 | – | 2.01 ± 0.15 | 60 ± 10 | 116 ± 10 | 73 ± 5 | 13 |
Aerobic athletes (16) | 50.0 ± 8.0 | 176 ± 8 | 73.0 ± 8.0 | – | 1.89 ± 0.16 | 47 ± 8 | 112 ± 8 | 68 ± 4 | ||
Jungblut et al. [43] | Control (12) | 69.0 ± 3.0 | 173 ± 9 | 79.0 ± 16.0 | 26 ± 3.4 | – | 69 ± 17 | 144 ± 17 | 82 ± 9 | 13 |
Runners (12) | 69.0 ± 5.0 | 173 ± 5 | 66.0 ± 6.2 | 22 ± 1.7 | – | 57 ± 8 | 141 ± 15 | 77 ± 6 | ||
Schmidt et al. [58] | Control (26) | 68.2 ± 3.2 | 176 ± 3 | 84 .1 ± 11.1 | 27.2 ± 3.8 | – | 61 ± 9 | 129 ± 14 | 77 ± 9 | 14 |
Soccer players (17) | 68.1 ± 2.1 | 178 ± 2 | 78.1 ± 8.2 | 24.6 ± 2.3 | – | 55 ± 8 | 127 ± 14 | 75 ± 9 | ||
Seals et al. [59] | Control (6) | 63.0 ± 3.0 | 181 ± 2 | 81.3 ± 7.4 | – | 2.01 ± 0.07 | 71 ± 7 | 130 ± 7 | – | 11 |
Runners (8) | 64.0 ± 6.0 | 173 ± 6 | 63.8 ± 5.7 | – | 1.76 ± 0.08 | 50 ± 6 | 137 ± 14 | – | ||
Molmen et al. [52] | Control (10) | 71.7 ± 1.3 | – | 76.5 ± 9.4 | 25 ± 2.5 | – | 66 ± 9 | 145 ± 17 | 81 ± 9 | 15 |
Cross–country skiers (11) | 74.3 ± 1.8 | – | 74.5 ± 8.3 | 23 ± 1.9 | – | 53 ± 8 | 122 ± 16 | 71 ± 9 | ||
Cottini et al. [34] | Control (15) | 61.0 ± 7.0 | – | – | – | – | 73 ± 8 | 128 ± 10 | 80 ± 8 | 6 |
Aerobic athletes (15) | 60.0 ± 10.0 | – | – | – | – | 58 ± 8 | 120 ± 9 | 75 ± 8 | ||
Olsen et al. [56] | Control (11) | 66.3 ± 3.8 | 175 ± 4 | 75.1 ± 4.4 | 24.6 ± 1.6 | – | 63 ± 7 | 127 ± 10 | 78 ± 5 | 15 |
Runners (17) | 65.0 ± 4.6 | 176 ± 4 | 71.1 ± 5.9 | 23.1 ± 1.6 | – | 54 ± 8 | 138 ± 18 | 76 ± 14 | ||
Fleg et al. [38] | Control (23) | 63.0 ± 6.0 | 177 ± 6 | 79.7 ± 11.9 | 25.3 ± 2.8 | 1.97 ± 0.16 | 72 ± 9 | 131 ± 17 | 79 ± 11 | 15 |
Runners (16) | 65.0 ± 8.0 | 176 ± 6 | 70.7 ± 8.1 | 22.8 ± 2.2 | 1.86 ± 0.12 | 56 ± 12 | 125 ± 17 | 74 ± 14 | ||
Miki et al. [51] | Control (14) | 49.0 ± 7.6 | – | – | – | 1.62 ± 0.14 | 61 ± 9 | 122 ± 10 | – | 10 |
Cyclists (35) | 49.4 ± 6.4 | – | – | – | 1.82 ± 0.10 | 51 ± 7 | 125 ± 9 | – | ||
Matelot et al. [48] | Control (10) | 59.0 ± 3.0 | 173 ± 5 | 78.6 ± 12.3 | 26.1 ± 3.2 | – | 70 ± 9 | 123 ± 8 | 79 ± 8 | 12 |
Runners, cyclists (13) | 62.0 ± 3.0 | 172 ± 4 | 71.2 ± 6.1 | 24.1 ± 2.1 | – | 57 ± 10 | 120 ± 12 | 78 ± 9 | ||
Donal et al. [37] | Control (15) | 58.9 ± 8.6 | 175 ± 10 | 78 ± 12.6 | – | 1.90 ± 0.20 | – | 141 ± 12 | 83 ± 7 | 14 |
Cyclists (38) | 61.5 ± 5.6 | 173 ± 10 | 72.3 ± 6.3 | – | 1.85 ± 0.10 | – | 137 ± 10 | 80 ± 8 | ||
Bohm et al. [30] | Control (33) | 46.0 ± 9.0 | 181 ± 6 | 80.0 ± 7.0 | – | 2.00 ± 0.10 | 65 ± 11 | 127 ± 8 | 78 ± 6 75 ± 7 | 15 |
Runners, rowers, triathletes (33) | 47.0 ± 8.0 | 182 ± 5 | 75.0 ± 6.0 | – | 1.96 ± 0.10 | 48 ± 7 | 128 ± 8 | |||
Grace et al. [7] | Control (22) | 62.7 ± 5.2 | 175 ± 6 | 89.9 ± 17.2 | – | – | 65 ± 12 | 139 ± 10 | 87 ± 5 | 13 |
Triathletes, athletics, sprint cyclists, racquet sports (17) | 61.1 ± 5.4 | 173 ± 5.5 | 79.5 ± 12.3 | – | – | 59 ± 10 | 131 ± 11 | 82 ± 7 | ||
Maufrais et al. [49] | Control (20) | 58.0 ± 7.0 | 177 ± 6 | 75.5 ± 11.8 | – | 1.92 ± 0.16 | 65 ± 9 | 127 ± 11 | 84 ± 7 | 13 |
Cyclists (22) | 61.0 ± 7.0 | 177 ± 7 | 73.3 ± 8 | – | 1.90 ± 0.12 | 53 ± 9 | 127 ± 11 | 84 ± 7 | ||
Maessen et al. [47] | Control (13) | 55.0 ± 8.0 | 181 ± 5 | 88.0 ± 9.0 | – | 2.09 ± 0.10 | – | – | – | 13 |
Endurance athletes (16) | 57.0 ± 8.0 | 178 ± 8 | 74.0 ± 8.0 | – | 1.91 ± 0.13 | – | – | – |
References | Controls | Athletes | ||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Activity levels | Aerobic capacity (mL·min·kg) | Sport | Training frequency | Training volume | Training intensity | Training years | Aerobic capacity (mL·min·kg) | |
Child et al. [33] | Sedentary | 35.0 ± 5.0 | Runners | – | – | – | 6 athletes ≥ 10 | 56.0 ± 8.0 |
D’Andrea et al. [35] | Sedentary | – | Swimmers | 15–20 h/week. 3 h/day swimming and 3 h /week LDR | – | 70–90% heart rate maximum | > 10 | – |
Giada et al. [42] | Not engaged in training program | 23.0 ± 3.0 | Cyclists | – | 213 ± 89 km/week in previous 6 months | – | 21 ± 12 | 43.0 ± 7.0 |
Kozakova et al. [44] | Untrained | – | Runners, triathletes | – | – | – | 28 ± 15 | – |
Lee et al. [45] | < 2 h of aerobic exercise per week | 33.8 ± 5.0 | Cyclists, triathletes, speed-skaters | > 6 h/week for the last 3 years | – | ≥ 50% of session performed at ≥ 60% \(\dot{V}{\text{O}}_{{2{ \hbox{max} }}}\) | ≥ 3 | 47.9 ± 4.3 |
Lindsay and Dunn [46] | Sedentary | – | Runners | – | 48 ± 25.76 km/week | – | 20 ± 13 | – |
Maufrais et al. [50] | No regular training habits | – | Runners, triathletes, cyclists | > 8 h/week | – | – | 24 ± 12 | – |
Northcote et al. [54] | Sedentary lifestyle. Participation in golf, walking and bowls | – | Runners | – | 47 ± 23 miles/week | – | 36 ± 7 | – |
Nottin et al. [55] | Sedentary | – | Cyclists | 10.5 ± 2.3 h/week | 11000 ± 3000 km/year | – | 22 ± 5 | – |
Sagiv et al. [57] | Untrained | 31.1 ± 2.4 | Aerobic athletes | – | – | – | ≥ 18 months | 42.1 ± 2.1 |
Nishimura et al. [53] | Sedentary | – | Bicyclists | 1–2 h/day, 4–5 days/week | – | – | 27 ± 2 | – |
Baldi et al. [29] | No participation in endurance sports previous 2 years. Some participation in recreational sports | 31.5 ± 5.9 | Endurance athletes | – | – | – | 21 ± 9 | 49.7 ± 6.8 |
Bouvier et al. [31] | Sedentary or moderately active subjects | 26.0 ± 5.0 | Orienteers, runners | 3–7 h/week | – | Strenuous | 15–25 years of age | 41.0 ± 7.0 |
Carrick-Ranson et al. [32] | ≤ 60 per week of endurance type training in last 12 months | 27.0 ± 4.0 | Cyclists, runners, dual/triathletes | 4 × 45 min/week (at least 3 h/week) over the previous 12 months | – | – | ≥ 1 | 45.0 ± 5.0 |
Di Bello et al. [36] | Sedentary lifestyles | – | Runners | 1–2 h/day, 5 days/week | – | – | – | – |
Galetta et al. [40] | Sedentary lifestyles with no regular exercise. \(\dot{V}{\text{O}}_{{2{ \hbox{max} }}}\) < 45 mL·min·kg | 38.0 ± 7.1 | Runners | 1–2 h of activity/day, 5 days/week. LDR 3 days and walking weight training 2 days | – | – | ≥ 40 | 63.7 ± 3.4 |
Galetta et al. [39] | \(\dot{V}{\text{O}}_{{2{ \hbox{max} }}}\) < 35 mL·min·kg | 28.0 ± 4.1 | Runners | > 5 times/week | – | Vigorous | 37 ± 5 | 45.7 ± 3.4 |
Gates et al. [41] | No regular aerobic exercise | 29.0 ± 10.0 | Aerobic athletes | > 5 times/week | – | – | 24 ± 4 | 37.0 ± 6.9 |
Gates et al. [41] | No regular aerobic exercise | 33.0 ± 4.9 | Aerobic athletes | > 5 times/week | – | – | 19 ± 3 | 51.0 ± 8.0 |
Jungblut et al. [43] | No sporting participation in previous 6 months | 27.0 ± 4.7 | Runners | – | 40 miles/week for at least previous 6 months | – | ≥ 6 months | 44.0 ± 6.3 |
Schmidt et al. [58] | Habitually active with no prior participation in structured exercise training | 29.0 ± 4.9 | Soccer players | 1.5 ± 0.6 1-h session/week | 26 ± 12 matches (2 × 35 min) per year | – | 52 ± 11 | 34.1 ± 5.0 |
Seals et al. [59] | No regular training habits for several years | 29.6 ± 3.43 | Runners | – | 43 ± 18 miles/week | – | 10 ± 6 | 50.4 ± 4.8 |
Molmen et al. [52] | Exercise < 2 times per week in previous year | 35.0 ± 5.0 | Cross-country skiers | > 5 times/week | – | – | ≥ 25 | 49.5 ± 4.5 |
Cottini et al. [34] | Sedentary | – | Aerobic athletes | – | – | – | – | – |
Olsen et al. [56] | Sedentary for at least the last 5 years | 29.6 ± 3.1 | Runners | 4–6 days/week | 49 ± 12 km/week | Moderate to high | 29 ± 8 | 46.9 ± 7.0 |
Fleg et al. [38] | No regular participation in endurance exercise. \(\dot{V}{\text{O}}_{{2{ \hbox{max} }}}\) within 1 SD of age-adjusted sedentary values of BLISA men | 30.2 ± 5.0 | Runners | – | 160 (median) km/month | – | 16 (median) | 47.2 ± 5.9 |
Miki et al. [51] | Untrained | – | Cyclists | – | – | – | 29 | – |
Matelot et al. [48] | ≤ 2 h of physical activity throughout life and never involved in competitive sport | 33.0 ± 4.3 | Runners, cyclists | 7 ± 4 h/week | – | – | 39 ± 4 | 47.3 ± 7.1 |
Donal et al. [37] | < 2 h of training per week | – | Cyclists | > 8 h/week | – | – | ≥ 5 | 47.8 ± 5.7 |
Bohm et al. [30] | ≤ 3 h/week | 37.0 ± 6.0 | Runners, rowers, triathletes | > 10 h/week | – | – | 29 ± 8 | 60.0 ± 5.0 |
Grace et al. [7] | No participation in any formal exercise | – | Triathletes, athletics, sprint cyclists, racquet sports | – | – | – | Lifelong | – |
Maufrais et al. [49] | No regular training habits | 33.3 ± 7.2 | Cyclists | 9 ± 2 h/week | – | – | 31 ± 11 | 42.3 ± 5.9 |
Maessen et al. [47] | < 10 MET-h/week over the last 20 years | 31.6 ± 4.8 | Endurance athletes | 7.1 (median) h/week | 60 (median) MET-h/week | ≥ 20 (lifelong) | 48.0 ± 8.9 |
References | Study group (n) | IVS (mm) | PWT (mm) | LVEDD (mm) | LVM (g) | LVMi (g·m2) | RWT | LVEDV (mL) | LAD (mm) | RVEDD (mm) |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Child et al. [33] | Control (12) Runners (9) | 10.5 ± 1.5 11.2 ± 2.2↔ | 9.9 ± 0.8 10.3 ± 0.9↔ | 48.3 ± 4.5 52.1 ± 3.7↑ | – – | 111.7 ± 23.8 153.9 ± 27.4↑ | – – | – – | – – | – – |
D’Andrea et al. [35] | Control (25) Swimmers (40) | 9.3 ± 1.1 10.2 ± 2.1↑ | 8.4 ± 2.1 9.4 ± 2.1↔ | 47.4 ± 4.7 56.4 ± 4.7↑ | – – | – – | 0.43 ± 0.04 0.39 ± 0.04↓ | – – | – – | 21.2 ± 2.8 25.2 ± 3.8↑ |
Giada et al. [42] | Control (12) Cyclists (12) | – – | – – | – – | – – | 93.0 ± 12.0 134.0 ± 19.0↑ | – – | – – | – – | – |
Kozakova et al. [44] | Control (16) Runners, triathletes (16) | 9.8 ± 0.0 13.6 ± 0.0 (a) | 9.6 ± 0.0 12.5 ± 0.0 (a) | 49.0 ± 8.0 52.8 ± 4.0↔ | 191.4 ± 56.0 348.6 ± 69.2↑ | 94.9 ± 22.0 184.6 ± 33.6↑ | – – | – – | – – | – |
Lee et al. [45] | Control (9) Cyclists, triathletes, speed-skaters (12) | 9.0 ± 2.0 9.0 ± 3.0↔ | 10.0 ± 6.0 10.0 ± 4.0↔ | 45.0 ± 10.0 45.0 ± 8.0↔ | – – | 58.4 ± 8.0 90.3 ± 15.0↑ | 0.36 ± 0.05 0.38 ± 0.01↔ | 108.0 ± 22.0 97.0 ± 29.0↔ | – – | – |
Lindsay and Dunn [46] | Control (45) Runners (45) | 9.0 ± 2.0 12.0 ± 2.0↑ | 9.0 ± 1.3 11.0 ± 1.3↑ | 48.0 ± 4.7 52.0 ± 4.0↑ | – – | 97.0 ± 20.1 141.0 ± 33.5↑ | 0.37 ± 0.07 0.42 ± 0.07↑ | – – | – – | – |
Maufrais et al. [50] | Control (26) Runners, triathletes, cyclists (35) | – – | – – | 50.0 ± 5.0 55.0 ± 4.0↑ | – – | – – | – – | – – | – – | – |
Northcote et al. [54] | Control (17) Runners (18) | 11.0 ± 0.8 12.2 ± 2.2↑ | 10.8 ± 0.9 12.1 ± 1.9↑ | 46.9 ± 4.1 46.8 ± 6.6↔ | 221.0 ± 36.7 265.0 ± 84.2↑ | 118.0 ± 17.6 151.0 ± 50.4↑ | 0.46 ± 0.06 0.53 ± 0.11↑ | 104.0 ± 18.4 112.0 ± 24.1↔ | – – | – |
Nottin et al. [55] | Control (14) Cyclists (14) | – – | – – | – – | – – | 98.0 ± 22.0 104.0 ± 23.0↔ | – – | – – | – – | – |
Nishimura et al. [53] | Control (15) Bicyclists (29) | 8.6 ± 1.1 11.0 ± 1.5↑ | 8.4 ± 1.0 10.1 ± 1.4↑ | 48.6 ± 2.4 54.1 ± 3.0↑ | 147.0 ± 23.0 222.0 ± 35.0↑ | – – | – – | 132.0 ± 15.0 173.0 ± 24.0↑ | 40.0 ± 5.6 31.1 ± 5.4↑ | – |
Baldi et al. [29] | Control (20) Endurance athletes (19) | 7.1 ± 0.4 8.6 ± 0.3↑ | 7.3 ± 0.3 8.9 ± 0.3↑ | 49.6 ± 4.2 54.1 ± 3.1↑ | 155.0 ± 6.4 174.7 ± 30.6↑ | 78.4 ± 24.3 94.3 ± 17.5↑ | – – | – – | 34.7 ± 8.6 35.2 ± 4.4↔ | – |
Bouvier et al. [31] | Control (12) Orienteers, runners (10) | 11.0 ± 1.3 11.0 ± 1.5↔ | 11.0 ± 1.4 12.0 ± 0.8↑ | 46.0 ± 6.0 48.0 ± 4.0↔ | – – | 121.0 ± 27.0 136.0 ± 24.0↔ | – – | – – | 39.0 ± 4.0 39.0 ± 4.0↔ | – |
Carrick-Ranson et al. [32] | Control (27) Cyclists, runners, dual/triathletes (17) | – – | – – | 55.0 ± 5.0 55.0 ± 6.0↔ | 166.0 ± 40.0 203.0 ± 41.0↑ | – – | – – | – – | – – | – |
Di Bello et al. [36] | Control (11) Runners (12) | 10.9 ± 2.3 13.1 ± 1.9↑ | 10.6 ± 1.4 12.5 ± 1.9↑ | 48.1 ± 5.2 50.7 ± 5.1↔ | 225.2 ± 62.7 318.9 ± 81.2↑ | 123.2 ± 29.1 165.1 ± 36.7↑ | – – | – – | 34.0 ± 3.2 35.9 ± 4.8↔ | – |
Galetta et al. [40] | Control (16) Runners (16) | 10.1 ± 0.7 12.2 ± 1.4↑ | 9.6 ± 0.8 11.9 ± 1.2↑ | 49.1 ± 4.6 53.2 ± 4.2↑ | 148.2 ± 12.5 258.2 ± 14.2↑ | – – | – – | – – | – – | – – |
Galetta et al. [39] | Control (25) Runners (25) | 10.1 ± 0.6 12.2 ± 1.3↑ | 9.4 ± 0.7 11.9 ± 1.1↑ | 49.7 ± 4.4 53.8 ± 4.4↑ | 146.2 ± 11.5 256.2 ± 12.8↑ | – – | – – | – – | – – | – – |
Gates et al. [41] | Control (11) Aerobic athletes (12) | – – | – – | – – | – – | 85.0 ± 16.6 106.0 ± 17.3↑ | 0.40 ± 0.04 0.38 ± 0.04↔ | – – | – – | – – |
Gates et al. [41] | Control (24) Aerobic athletes (16) | – – | – – | – – | – – | 85.0 ± 9.8 98.0 ± 12.0↑ | 0.37 ± 0.04 0.35 ± 0.02↔ | – – | – – | – – |
Jungblut et al. [43] | Control (12) Runners (12) | 9.0 ± 1.0 9.0 ± 2.0↔ | 10.0 ± 2.0 10.0 ± 1.0 (↔ | 47.0 ± 5.0 53.0 ± 6.0↑ | – – | 51.0 ± 7.8 61.0 ± 13.0↑ | 0.40 ± 0.08 0.40 ± 0.07↔ | – – | – – | – – |
Schmidt et al. [58] | Control (26) Soccer players (17) | 10.0 ± 2.0 10.0 ± 1.0↔ | 10.0 ± 2.0 9.0 ± 1.0↔ | 49.0 ± 5.0 50.0 ± 5.0↔ | – – | 85.4 ± 17.3 90.6 ± 21.2↔ | – – | 97.0 ± 20.0 116.0 ± 22.0↑ | – – | – – |
Seals et al. [59] | Control (6) Runners (8) | – – | – – | – – | – – | – – | 0.35 ± 0.02 0.34 ± 0.06↔ | – – | – – | – – |
Cottini et al. [34] | Control (15) Aerobic athletes (15) | 9.1 ± 1.0 9.4 ± 0.8↔ | 8.5 ± 1.1 8.8 ± 0.7↔ | 52.8 ± 3.1 54.0 ± 2.0↔ | – – | – – | – – | 138.0 ± 8.4 146.0 ± 8.4↑ | 36.0 ± 3.9 35.0 ± 4.8↔ | – – |
Olsen et al. [56] | Control (11) Runners (17) | – – | – – | 45.0 ± 2.0 50.0 ± 4.0↑ | 129.0 ± 20.0 188.0 ± 39.0↑ | 68.0 ± 11.0 101.0 ± 20.0↑ | 0.38 ± 0.04 0.37 ± 0.06↔ | 89.0 ± 18.0 122.0 ± 15.0↑ | – – | – – |
Fleg et al. [38] | Control (23) Runners (16) | – – | – – | – – | – – | 102.0 ± 30.0 105.0 ± 30.0↔ | 0.48 ± 0.10 0.42 ± 0.10↔ | – – | – – | – – |
Miki et al. [51] | Control (14) Cyclists (35) | – – | – – | – – | – – | 107.5 ± 17.4 180.9 ± 34.2↑ | 0.39 ± 0.04 0.47 ± 0.09↑ | – – | – – | – – |
Matelot et al. [48] | Control (10) Runners, cyclists (13) | 9.4 ± 1.4 9.9 ± 1.6↔ | 7.9 ± 1.5 9.6 ± 1.8↑ | 48.6 ± 2.8 52.5 ± 3.7↑ | – – | – – | – – | – – | – – | – – |
Donal et al. [37] | Control (15) Cyclists (38) | 9.0 ± 1.0 11.0 ± 1.0↑ | 10.0 ± 2.0 11.0 ± 1.0↑ | 47.0 ± 4.0 48.0 ± 4.0↔ | – – | 79.3 ± 15.7 104.7 ± 17.2↑ | – – | 117.5 ± 23.2 120.5 ± 20.6↔ | – – | 20.5 ± 3.7 20.1 ± 2.7↔ |
Bohm et al. [30] | Control (33) Runners, rowers, triathletes (33) | 10.3 ± 0.8 11.7 ± 0.7↑ | 9.2 ± 1.1 10.4 ± 1.1↑ | 50.0 ± 4.2 56.4 ± 2.2↑ | – – | – – | – – | – – | – – | 27.3 ± 4.3 34.1 ± 3.8↑ |
Sagiv et al. [57] | Control (15) Aerobic athletes (15) | – – | – – | – – | – – | – – | – – | 100.7 ± 6.2 108.1 ± 5.8↑ | – – | – – |
Molmen et al. [52] | Control (10 Cross-country skiers (11) | – – | – – | – – | – – | – – | – – | 102.0 ± 13.0 142.0 ± 21.0↑ | – – | – – |
Grace et al. [7] | Control (22) Triathletes, athletics, sprint cyclists, racquet sports (17) | 10.0 ± 1.5 10.0 ± 1.0↔ | 9.7 ± 1.3 10.5 ± 1.3↔ | 51.4 ± 5.2 52.7 ± 4.8↔ | 223.0 ± 48.0 249.0 ± 49.0↔ | 89.0 ± 16.9 96.0 ± 16.2↔ | – – | – – | – – | – – |
Maessen et al. [47] | Control (13) Endurance athletes (16) | – – | – – | – – | – – | – – | – – | 92.0 ± 15.0 101.0 ± 24.0 | – – | – – |
Maufrais et al. [49] | Control (20) Cyclists (22) | – – | – – | 51.0 ± 6.0 55.0 ± 5.0↑ | – – | 96.0 ± 26.0 127.0 ± 27.0↑ | – – | – – | – – | – – |
References | Study group (n) | EF (%) | FS (%) | SV (mL) | s′ (cm·s−1) | GLS (%) |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Child et al. [33] | Control (12) Runners (9) | – – | 39.1 ± 4.7 37.8 ± 2.6↔ | – – | – – | – – |
D’Andrea et al. [35] | Control (25) Swimmers (40) | – – | 41.7 ± 3.7 46.7 ± 4.7↑ | 71.4 ± 3.2 90.1 ± 6.2↑ | 9.0 ± 4.0 14.0 ± 3.0↑ | – – |
Giada et al. [42] | Control (12) Cyclists (12) | 67.0 ± 4.0 63.0 ± 5.0↓ | – – | – – | – – | – – |
Lee et al. [45] | Control (9) Cyclists, triathletes, speed-skaters (12) | 61.2 ± 2.4 61.6 ± 4.0↔ | – – | – – | – – | – – |
Maufrais et al. [50] | Control (26) Runners, triathletes, cyclists (35) | – – | – – | – – | 7.3 ± 1.6 7.5 ± 1.6↔ | – – |
Northcote et al. [54] | Control (17) Runners (18) | 58.0 ± 7.0 57.0 ± 10.5↔ | 27.0 ± 6.2 29.0 ± 5.7↔ | – – | – – | – – |
Nottin et al. [55] | Control (14) Cyclists (14) | 61.0 ± 3.0 62.0 ± 2.0↔ | – – | – – | 10.5 ± 2.4 9.6 ± 1.8↔ | – – |
Sagiv et al. [57] | Control (15) Aerobic athletes (15) | – – | – – | 57.3 ± 6.6 68.1 ± 4.3↑ | – – | – – |
Nishimura et al. [53] | Control (15) Bicyclists (29) | 66.0 ± 2.0 63.0 ± 4.0↓ | 32.0 ± 2.0 30.0 ± 3.0↓ | 93.0 ± 16.0 111.0 ± 15.0↑ | – – | – – |
Baldi et al. [29] | Control (20) Endurance athletes (19) | – – | 36.9 ± 5.7 33.7 ± 5.6↔ | – – | 7.1 ± 0.9 8.3 ± 1.4↑ | – – |
Bouvier et al. [31] | Control (12) Orienteers, runners (10) | – – | 32.0 ± 6.0 31.0 ± 6.0↔ | – – | – – | – – |
Carrick-Ranson et al. [32] | Control (27) Cyclists, runners, dual/triathletes (17) | – – | – – | – – | 10.0 ± 1.0 8.0 ± 2.0↓ | – – |
Di Bello et al. [36] | Control (11) Runners (12) | 71.8 ± 9.1 75.5 ± 9.3↔ | 42.0 ± 8.2 45.2 ± 9.0↔ | 65.5 ± 36.1 97.3 ± 23.2↑ | – – | – – |
Galetta et al. [40] | Control (16) Runners (16) | 67.2 ± 4.5 64.2 ± 5.2↔ | – – | – – | – – | – – |
Galetta et al. [39] | Control (25) Runners (25) | 66.2 ± 4.5 64.2 ± 5.2↔ | – – | – – | 8.9 ± 0.8 9.3 ± 0.8↔ | – – |
Jungblut et al. [43] | Control (12) Runners (12) | – – | 40.0 ± 6.0 40.0 ± 4.0↔ | – – | – – | – – |
Schmidt et al. [58] | Control (26) Soccer players (17) | 54.0 ± 6.0 58.0 ± 4.0↑ | – – | – – | 8.7 ± 1.5 8.1 ± 1.3↔ | − 17.7 ± 2.5 − 19.9 ± 2.5↑ |
Seals et al. [59] | Control (6) Runners (8) | – – | 36.2 ± 6.9 33.3 ± 8.8↔ | – – | – – | – – |
Molmen et al. [52] | Control (10) Cross-country skiers (11) | 58.7 ± 7.2 63.7 ± 4.8↔ | – – | 79.0 ± 13.0 102.0 ± 25.0↑ | 7.3 ± 0.8 8.2 ± 1.6↔ | – – |
Cottini et al. [34] | Control (15) Aerobic athletes (15) | 58.0 ± 2.7 65.0 ± 3.0↑ | – – | – – | – – | – – |
Olsen et al. [56] | Control (11) Runners (17) | 59.0 ± 3.0 60.0 ± 4.0↔ | – – | – – | 9.4 ± 1.2 8.2 ± 1.5↓ | – – |
Fleg et al. [38] | Control (23) Runners (16) | – – | 42.0 ± 9.0 38.0 ± 6.0↔ | – – | – – | – – |
Miki et al. [51] | Control (14) Cyclists (35) | – – | 35.6 ± 3.7 34.7 ± 4.2↔ | – – | – – | – – |
Matelot et al. [48] | Control (10) Runners, cyclists (13) | 67.1 ± 5.6 62.2 ± 4.3↓ | – – | – – | 8.9 ± 1.5 8.6 ± 2.0↔ | − 19.4 ± 2.1 − 19.8 ± 1.9↔ |
Donal et al. [37] | Control (15) Cyclists (38) | 62.8 ± 6.8 61.4 ± 6.0↔ | – – | 76.2 ± 14.3 74.0 ± 14.5↔ | 10.2 ± 1.3 9.2 ± 2.2↔ | − 18.0 ± 2.4 − 17.3 ± 2.2↔ |
Bohm et al. [30] | Control (33/32a) Runners, rowers, triathletes (33/32 a) | – – | – – | – – | 9.0 ± 1.5 9.5 ± 1.5↔ | − 18.0 ± 2.0a − 17.0 ± 2.0a↓ |
Grace et al. [7] | Control (22) Triathletes, athletics, sprint cyclists, racquet sports (17) | 55.6 ± 8.6 60.9 ± 5.1↑ | – – | 67.0 ± 23.0 77.0 ± 9.0↔ | – – | – – |
Maessen et al. [47] | Control (13) Endurance athletes (18) | – – | – – | – – | 9.0 ± 1.4 9.3 ± 1.9↔ | – – |
Maufrais et al. [49] | Control (20) Cyclists (22) | – – | – – | – – | 7.8 ± 1.4 7.4 ± 1.2↔ | 18.1 ± 3.0 17.3 ± 2.1↔ |
References | Study group (n) | E (cm·s−1) | A (cm·s−1) | E/A | e′ (cm·s−1) | a′ (cm·s−1) | e′/a′ | E/e′ |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
D’Andrea et al. [35] | Control (25) Swimmers (40) | 72.0 ± 17.0 88.0 ± 12.0↑ | 53.0 ± 14.0 56.0 ± 12.0↔ | 1.4 ± 0.5 1.7 ± 0.5↑ | 9.0 ± 2.0 16.0 ± 4.0↑ | 11.0 ± 2.0 12.0 ± 2.0↑ | 0.8 ± 0.4 1.3 ± 0.3↑ | – – |
Giada et al. [42] | Control (12) Cyclists (12) | 54.9 ± 12.0 57.0 ± 19.0↔ | 57.0 ± 7.0 54.0 ± 15.0↔ | 0.9 ± 0.2 1.0 ± 0.3↔ | – – | – – | – – | – – |
Lee et al. [45] | Control (9) Cyclists, triathletes, speed-skaters (12) | 73.0 ± 22.0 73.0 ± 16.0↔ | 81.0 ± 13.0 62.0 ± 14.0↓ | 0.9 ± 0.2 1.2 ± 0.5↔ | – – | – – | – – | – – |
Lindsay and Dunn [46] | Control (45) Runners (45) | 70.0 ± 20.0 70.0 ± 20.0↔ | 70.0 ± 20.0 60.0 ± 13.0↓ | 1.1 ± 0.2 1.2 ± 0.5(↔) | – – | – – | – – | – – |
Maufrais et al. [50] | Control (26) Runners, triathletes, cyclists (35) | 70.0 ± 15.0 71.0 ± 15.0↔ | 66.0 ± 13.0 64.0 ± 16.0↔ | 1.1 ± 0.2 1.2 ± 0.3↔ | 7.9 ± 1.3 8.8 ± 1.9↑ | 8.4 ± 1.3 7.5 ± 1.3↓ | 1.0 ± 0.2 1.2 ± 0.3↑ | – – |
Nottin et al. [55] | Control (14) Cyclists (!4) | 53.7 ± 9.7 68.3 ± 13.1↑ | 67.4 ± 12.3 66.9 ± 10.6↔ | 0.8 ± 0.2 1.0 ± 0.2↑ | 11.3 ± 3.2 11.4 ± 2.0↔ | 12.4 ± 2.4 11.0 ± 1.7↔ | 0.9 ± 0.3 1.1 ± 0.3↔ | 4.4 ± 1.1 6.1 ± 2.0↑ |
Baldi et al. [29] | Control (20) Endurance athletes (19) | 52.0 ± 10.9 56.6 ± 13.7↔ | 56.3 ± 11.2 57.2 ± 13.8↔ | 0.9 ± 0.3 1.0 ± 0.3↔ | 7.1 ± 1.5 7.7 ± 1.6↔ | 10.9 ± 1.5 11.9 ± 1.6↑ | 0.7 ± 0.1 0.7 ± 0.1↔ | 7.6 ± 2.0 7.5 ± 2.1↔ |
Bouvier et al. [31] | Control (12) Orienteers, runners (10) | – – | – – | 0.8 ± 0.2 1.4 ± 0.7↑ | – – | – – | – – | – – |
Carrick-Ranson et al. [32] | Control (27) Cyclists, runners, dual/triathletes (17) | 53.7 ± 15.3 53.7 ± 8.7↔ | 60.4 ± 20.7 48.8 ± 8.5↓ | 0.9 ± 0.2 1.1 ± 0.2↑ | 6.9 ± 1.4 6.6 ± 1.5↔ | 10.0 ± 2.1 8.5 ± 1.7↓ | 0.7 ± 0.1 0.8 ± 0.2↔ | 8.0 ± 2.0 9.0 ± 2.0↔ |
Di Bello et al. [36] | Control (11) Runners (12) | 77.0 ± 10.0 84.0 ± 13.0↔ | 82.0 ± 22.0 74.0 ± 20.0↔ | 1.0 ± 0.2 1.2 ± 0.3↑ | – – | – – | – – | – – |
Galetta et al. [40] | Control (16) Runners (16) | 56.6 ± 6.3 56.4 ± 6.1↔ | 59.8 ± 9.1 55.9 ± 8.5↔ | 0.9 ± 0.2 1.0 ± 0.3↔ | – – | – – | – – | – – |
Galetta et al. [39] | Control (25) Runners (25) | 56.6 ± 6.3 58.4 ± 6.1↔ | 64.8 ± 8.1 45.9 ± 7.5↓ | 0.9 ± 0.2 1.2 ± 0.3↑ | 9.1 ± 2.3 12.3 ± 2.8↑ | 10.7 ± 1.7 8.6 ± 1.6↓ | 0.8 ± 0.3 1.4 ± 0.3↑ | – – |
Gates et al. [41] | Control (11) Aerobic athletes (12) | – – | – – | 0.9 ± 0.2 1.1 ± 0.3↔ | – – | – – | – – | – – |
Gates et al. [41] | Control (24) Aerobic athletes (16) | – – | – – | 1.3 ± 0.4 1.8 ± 0.5↑ | – – | – – | – – | – – |
Jungblut et al. [43] | Control (12) Runners (12) | 76.0 ± 22.0 79.0 ± 16.0↔ | 75.0 ± 15.0 73.0 ± 19.0↔ | 1.0 ± 0.3 1.1 ± 0.2↔ | – – | – – | – – | – – |
Schmidt et al. [58] | Control (26) Soccer players (17) | 70.0 ± 10.0 60.0 ± 10.0↓ | 70.0 ± 20.0 50.0 ± 10.0↓ | 1.1 ± 0.3 1.1 ± 0.2↔ | 10.2 ± 2.3 10.0 ± 1.9↔ | 11.8 ± 1.9 10.6 ± 2.4↔ | – – | – – |
Molmen et al. [52] | Control (10) Cross-country skiers (11) | 58.0 ± 15.0 58.0 ± 14.0↔ | 71.0 ± 19.0 49.0 ± 14.0↓ | 0.9 ± 0.3 1.3 ± 0.7↔ | 6.9 ± 1.5 9.0 ± 2.1↑ | 11.5 ± 2.1 10.3 ± 2.8↔ | – – | – – |
Cottini et al. [34] | Control (15) Aerobic athletes (15) | 62.2 ± 8.2 80.0 ± 13.6↑ | 68.2 ± 5.5 64.9 ± 12.3↔ | 0.9 ± 0.1 1.2 ± 0.1↑ | – – | – – | – – | – – |
Olsen et al. [56] | Control (11) Runners (17) | 56.0 ± 8.0 63.0 ± 15.0↔ | 63.0 ± 12.0 59.0 ± 15.0↔ | 0.9 ± 0.2 1.1 ± 0.3↔ | 7.8 ± 1.7 8.3 ± 2.5↔ | 11.2 ± 1.0 10.1 ± 1.4↓ | – – | 7.5 ± 1.4 8.1 ± 2.8↔ |
Fleg et al. [38] | Control (23) Runners (16) | 68.0 ± 19.0 56.0 ± 15.0↓ | 68.0 ± 19.0 51.0 ± 16.0↓ | 1.1 ± 0.4 1.2 ± 0.5↔ | – – | – – | – – | – – |
Matelot et al. [48] | Control (10) Runners, cyclists (13) | 69.2 ± 8.3 64.0 ± 11.0↔ | 74.6 ± 16.5 58.9 ± 16.7↓ | 1.0 ± 0.2 1.1 ± 0.3↔ | 9.9 ± 1.9 10.5 ± 2.6↔ | 10.8 ± 1.9 10.5 ± 1.1↔ | – – | 7.2 ± 1.4 6.3 ± 1.3↔ |
Donal et al. [37] | Control (15) Cyclists (38) | 71.5 ± 17.0 61.5 ± 13.3↓ | 68.0 ± 19.4 59.7 ± 13.8↔ | 1.1 ± 0.5 1.1 ± 0.3↔ | 12.3 ± 2.3 10.5 ± 2.3↓ | 11.2 ± 2.6 10.9 ± 2.6↔ | – – | 6.2 ± 1.7 6.2 ± 2.1↔ |
Bohm et al. [30] | Control (33) Runners, rowers, triathletes (33) | – – | – – | – – | 12.0 ± 3.0 11.5 ± 3.0↔ | 10.5 ± 2.5 9.0 ± 2.5↓ | 1.25 ± 0.6 1.35 ± 0.6↔ | 6.0 ± 1.5 6.0 ± 1.5↔ |
Grace et al. [7] | Control (22) Triathletes, athletics, sprint cyclists, racquet sports (17) | 68.0 ± 14.0 70.0 ± 11.0↔ | 63.0 ± 15.0 54.0 ± 7.0↓ | 1.1 ± 0.3 1.3 ± 0.3↑ | 6.2 ± 1.3 7.4 ± 1.4↑ | – – | – – | – – |
Maessen et al. [47] | Control (13) Endurance athletes (18) | 62.7 ± 15.7 63.0 ± 11.9↔ | – – | – – | – – | 11.2 ± 2.0 11.3 ± 2.5↔ | – – | – – |
Maufrais et al. [49] | Control (20) Cyclists (22) | 69.7 ± 11.3 73.0 ± 15.7↔ | – – | – – | 9.1 ± 1.6 9.5 ± 2.6↔ | – – | – – | 7.8 ± 1.6 7.8 ± 2.0↔ |
Parameter | Number of studies | Difference in means | 95% CI | p value | Heterogeneity | p value | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Cochran’s Q | I2 statistic (%) | ||||||
Cardiac structure | |||||||
IVS (mm) | 18 | 1.23 | 0.85 to 1.60 | < 0.01 | 78.42 | 78.32 | < 0.01 |
PWT (mm) | 18 | 1.20 | 0.83 to 1.56 | < 0.01 | 81.60 | 79.17 | < 0.01 |
LVEDD (mm) | 23 | 3.65 | 2.66 to 4.64 | < 0.01 | 64.99 | 66.15 | < 0.01 |
RWT | 11 | 0.00 | −0.02 to 0.03 | 0.73 | 51.89 | 80.73 | < 0.01 |
LVM (g) | 10 | 72.03 | 45.70 to 98.36 | < 0.01 | 211.29 | 95.74 | < 0.01 |
LVMi (g·m2) | 20 | 28.17 | 19.84 to 36.49 | < 0.01 | 148.62 | 87.22 | < 0.01 |
LVEDV (mL) | 10 | 16.11 | 7.80 to 24.43 | < 0.01 | 56.02 | 83.93 | < 0.01 |
LAD (mm) | 5 | 2.07 | −1.66 to 5.79 | 0.28 | 20.73 | 80.70 | < 0.01 |
RVEDD (mm) | 3 | 3.49 | −0.55 to 7.53 | 0.09 | 29.37 | 93.19 | < 0.01 |
Left ventricular systolic function | |||||||
EF (%) | 15 | 0.43 | −1.57 to 2.44 | 0.67 | 82.90 | 83.11 | < 0.01 |
FS (%) | 11 | −0.34 | −2.32 to 1.63 | 0.73 | 34.60 | 71.10 | < 0.01 |
SV (mL) | 7 | 13.59 | 7.20 to 19.98 | < 0.01 | 30.48 | 80.31 | < 0.01 |
s′ (cm·s−1) | 14 | 0.09 | −0.53 to 0.70 | 0.79 | 82.85 | 84.31 | < 0.01 |
GLS (%) | 5 | −0.04 | −1.18 to 1.10 | 0.94 | 13.63 | 70.66 |
0.01
|
Left ventricular diastolic function | |||||||
E (cm·s−1) | 22 | 2.08 | −1.12 to 5.28 | 0.20 | 74.06 | 71.64 | < 0.01 |
A (cm·s−1) | 20 | −8.20 | −11.90 to −4.51 | < 0.01 | 68.73 | 72.36 | < 0.01 |
E/A | 23 | 0.18 | 0.13 to 0.24 | < 0.01 | 42.31 | 48.00 |
0.01
|
e′ (cm·s−1) | 14 | 0.96 | 0.05 to 1.86 |
0.04
| 93.55 | 86.10 | < 0.01 |
a′ (cm·s−1) | 13 | −0.72 | −1.31 to −0.12 |
0.02
| 41.32 | 70.96 | < 0.01 |
e′/a′ | 7 | 0.23 | 0.06 to 0.40 |
0.01
| 61.44 | 90.23 | < 0.01 |
E/e′ | 8 | 0.23 | −0.31 to 0.77 | 0.40 | 12.51 | 44.06 | 0.08 |
3.2 Cardiac Structure
3.3 Left Ventricular Systolic Function
3.4 Left Ventricular Diastolic Function
3.5 Meta-Regression(s)
Covariate parameter | Number of studies | Cochran’s Q | SE |
β
| 95% CI | p value | Interpretation (i.e. difference between athletes and controls with advancing age) |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Left ventricular structure | |||||||
IVS | 18 | 1.88 | 0.02 | −0.04 | −0.08 to 0.01 | 0.17 | Maintained |
PWT | 18 | 0.05 | 0.02 | −0.005 | −0.05 to 0.04 | 0.82 | Maintained |
LVEDD | 23 | 6.42 | 0.05 | −0.14 | −0.24 to −0.03 |
0.01
| Reduced. The greater LVEDD in athletes reduced by ~ 0.14 mm per year relative to controls |
RWT | 11 | 1.06 | 0.002 | −0.002 | −0.01 to 0.002 | 0.30 | Maintained |
LVM | 10 | 0.29 | 1.81 | −0.97 | −4.51 to 2.58 | 0.59 | Maintained |
LVMi | 20 | 9.79 | 0.57 | −1.79 | −2.91 to −0.67 | < 0.01 | Reduced. The greater LVMi in athletes reduced by ~ 1.79 g·m2 per year relative to controls |
LVEDV | 10 | 0.44 | 0.62 | 0.41 | −0.81 to 1.63 | 0.51 | Maintained |
Left ventricular systolic function | |||||||
EF | 15 | 1.57 | 0.15 | 0.19 | −0.11 to 0.48 | 0.21 | Maintained |
FS | 11 | 0.42 | 0.11 | −0.07 | −0.30 to 0.15 | 0.51 | Maintained |
s′ | 14 | 2.80 | 0.04 | −0.07 | −0.16 to 0.01 | 0.09 | Maintained |
Left ventricular diastolic function | |||||||
E | 22 | 2.53 | 0.25 | −0.40 | −0.89 to 0.09 | 0.11 | Maintained |
A | 20 | 3.98 | 0.25 | −0.50 | −1.00 to −0.01 |
0.046
| Increased. There was an increase of ~ 0.50 cm·s−1 per year in controls relative to athletes |
E/A | 23 | 0.0001 | 0.004 | 0.00004 | −0.01 to 0.01 | 0.99 | Maintained |
e′ | 14 | 0.41 | 0.06 | −0.04 | −0.17 to 0.09 | 0.52 | Maintained |
a′ | 13 | 1.03 | 0.04 | −0.04 | −0.12 to 0.04 | 0.31 | Maintained |