Background
Methods
Sample
N
| % | ||
---|---|---|---|
Gender
| male | 2,128 | 45.9 |
female | 2,512 | 54.1 | |
Age (years) | mean | 48.4 | |
standard deviation | 17.96 | ||
range | 14 to 92 | ||
Age groups
| < 25 | 511 | 10.9 |
(years) | 25 - 34 | 620 | 13.4 |
35 - 44 | 895 | 19.3 | |
45 - 54 | 811 | 17.5 | |
55 - 64 | 734 | 15.8 | |
65 - 74 | 718 | 15.5 | |
> 74 | 351 | 7.6 | |
Marital status
| married, living together | 2,470 | 53.2 |
married, living separately | 56 | 1.2 | |
Single | 1,127 | 24.3 | |
Divorced | 444 | 9.6 | |
Widowed | 543 | 11.7 | |
Education
| not graduated | 49 | 1.1 |
Pupil | 164 | 3.5 | |
8th grade (Hauptschule) | 2,018 | 43.5 | |
10th grade (Mittlere Reife/Realschule/POS) | 1,622 | 34.9 | |
technical school | 135 | 2.9 | |
12th/13th grade (Abitur) | 357 | 7.7 | |
university/college degree | 295 | 6.4 | |
Employment status
| full-time (≥ 35 hours) | 1,689 | 36.4 |
part-time (15–34 hours) | 402 | 8.7 | |
part-time (≤14 hours) | 89 | 1.9 | |
Unemployed | 252 | 5.4 | |
Pensioner | 1,385 | 29.9 | |
unable to work | 427 | 9.2 | |
in professional training | 59 | 1.2 | |
in school-/college education | 337 | 7.3 | |
Household net income
#
| < 750 € per month | 177 | 3.8 |
(N = 4,413; 95.1%) | 750 to 1,250 € per month | 793 | 17.1 |
1,250 to 2,000 € per month | 1,584 | 34.1 | |
> 2,000 € per month | 1,858 | 40.1 |
Measures
Statistical procedure
Results
Descriptive item analysis
Scale item |
M (SD)
| Response frequencies | ||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Never | Occasionally | Often | Always | |||
Father – Rejection & punishment (Factor 1)
| 2.7 (1.06) | |||||
01 Have you been punished hard by your father, even for trifles (small offenses)? | 1.5 (0.69) | 59% | 32% | 8% | 1% | |
18 Did it happen that your father gave you corporal punishment without reason? | 1.2 (0.53) | 82% | 14% | 3% | 1% | |
Father - Emotional warmth (Factor 2)
| 4.2 (1.49) | |||||
15 Has your father comforted you when you were sad? | 2.2 (0.81) | 20% | 47% | 27% | 6% | |
24 Was your father able to smooch with you? | 2.0 (0.85) | 29% | 45% | 20% | 6% | |
Father – Control & overprotection (Factor 3)
| 3.3 (1.16) | |||||
11 Did your father spur you to become the best? | 1.8 (0.83) | 46% | 35% | 15% | 4% | |
23 Do you think that your father’s anxiety that something might happen to you was exaggerated? | 1.5 (0.67) | 58% | 34% | 7% | 1% | |
Mother – Rejection & punishment (Factor 1)
| 2.5 (0.90) | |||||
01 Have you been punished hard by your mother, even for trifles (small offenses)? | 1.4 (0.62) | 70% | 24% | 5% | 1% | |
18 Did it happen that your mother gave you corporal punishment without reason? | 1.1 (0.44) | 89% | 8% | 2% | 1% | |
Mother - Emotional Warmth (Factor 2)
| 5.3 (1.42) | |||||
15 Has your mother comforted you when you were sad? | 2.7 (0.77) | 6% | 31% | 50% | 13% | |
24 Was your mother able to smooch with you? | 2.6 (0.83) | 9% | 34% | 44% | 13% | |
Mother - Control & overprotection (Factor 3)
| 3.6 (1.29) | |||||
11 Did your mother spur you to become the best? | 1.7 (0.79) | 49% | 35% | 13% | 3% | |
23 Do you think that your mother’s anxiety that something might happen to you was exaggerated? | 1.9 (0.84) | 39% | 39% | 18% | 4% |
Confirmatory factor analysis (CFA)
Model tested | Absolute fit | Comparative fit | Parsimony fit | ||
---|---|---|---|---|---|
χ
2
a
|
df
| TLI | CFI | RMSEA (90% CI) | |
Factorial Invariance
| |||||
Father items | 136.380 | 6 | .968 | .987 | .068 (.059, .079) |
Mother items | 235.740 *** | 6 | .933 | .973 | .091 (.081, .101) |
MIMIC models – gender
| |||||
Father items – exploratory | 241.923 | 9 | .948 | .978 | .075 (.067, .083) |
Father items – constrained b
| 344.823 | 10 | .933 | .968 | .085 (.077, .093) |
Mother items – exploratory | 268.581 | 9 | .931 | .970 | .079 (.071, .087) |
Mother items – constrained b
| 285.301 | 10 | .934 | .968 | .077 (.069, .085) |
MIMIC models – age group
| |||||
Father items – exploratory | 205.642 | 9 | .956 | .981 | .069 (.061, .077) |
Father items – constrained b
| 314.059 | 8 | .923 | .970 | .091 (.082, .100) |
Mother items – exploratory | 331.585 | 9 | .913 | .963 | .088 (.080, .096) |
Mother items – constrained b
| 347.002 | 8 | .897 | .961 | .096 (.087, .104) |
Father items | Mother items | |||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Factor 1a
| Factor 2a
| Factor 3a
| δ
i
| Factor 1a
| Factor 2a
| Factor 3a
| δ
i
| |
Λ
i(1)
|
Λ
i(2)
|
Λ
i(3)
|
Λ
i(1)
|
Λ
i(2)
|
Λ
i(3)
| |||
i1 | .83 (.80, .86) | .31 | .70 (.66, .74) | .51 | ||||
i18 | .85 (.82, .89) | .27 | .93 (.88, .98) | .14 | ||||
i15 | .86 (.82, .89) | .27 | .84 (.82, .87) | .29 | ||||
i24 | .81 (.78, .84) | .34 | .79 (.76, .82) | .38 | ||||
i11 | .54 (.49, .59) | .71 | .54 (.50, .58) | .71 | ||||
i23 | .47 (.42, .51) | .78 | .58 (.54, .62) | .66 | ||||
f1 ⇔ f2
b
| -.41 (−.44, -.38) | -.39 (−.43, -.35) | ||||||
f1 ⇔ f3
b
| .59 (.53, .65) | .48 (.42, .54) | ||||||
f2 ⇔ f3
b
| .37 (.31, .41) | .49 (.44, .53) |
Effects of gender and age
Parameters in the IRT framework
Factor validity and relationship to raw scores
Factor score | Raw score | |||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
AVE | √AVE |
f1
|
f2
|
f3
|
f1
|
f2
|
f3
| |
Father items
| ||||||||
Factor score
| ||||||||
f1
| .97 | .98 | 1.00 | |||||
f2
| .96 | .98 | -.49*** | 1.00 | ||||
f3
| .51 | .71 | .57*** | .43*** | 1.00 | |||
Raw score
| ||||||||
f1
| .93*** | 1.00 | ||||||
f2
| -.44*** | .99*** | -.49*** | 1.00 | ||||
f3
| .42*** | .24*** | .78*** | .57*** | .43*** | 1.00 | ||
Mother items
| ||||||||
Factor score
| ||||||||
f1
| .93 | .97 | 1.00 | |||||
f2
| .95 | .98 | -.47*** | 1.00 | ||||
f3
| .62 | .79 | .42*** | .59*** | 1.00 | |||
Raw score
| ||||||||
f1
| .86*** | 1.00 | ||||||
f2
| -.45*** | .99*** | -.47*** | 1.00 | ||||
f3
| .41*** | .35*** | .85*** | .42*** | .59*** | 1.00 |