Anemia and health-related quality of life in South Korea: data from the Korean national health and nutrition examination survey 2008–2016

Anemia is characterized by a decreased number and altered morphology of red blood cells. The World Health Organization (WHO) defines anemia as a hemoglobin (Hb) level below 13 g/dL in men and 12 g/dL in women [1]. With advances in preventive medicine and improved nutrition, the global prevalence of anemia has decreased from 40.2% in 1990 to 32.9% in 2010 [2]; in the United States (US), the prevalence of anemia was 6.5% in 2003–2013 [3]. In South Korea, data from the Korea National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (KNHANES) revealed that the overall prevalence of anemia in individuals over 10 years of age was 8.2% in 2005–2015, and that it has decreased from 8.5% in 2005 to 6.4% in 2015 [4].

Although the world has made progress in reducing mortality and extending life expectancy over the past few decades [5, 6], people recognize that optimal health-related quality of life (HRQoL) is more important than just a life extension [5, 7]. Anemia is associated with morbidity and mortality [8, 9], and is the major cause of years lived with disability since 1990 [5], indicating that anemia often affects individuals with poor health who require comprehensive health care services [7]. In some studies, Hb ≤ 12 g/dL was associated with decreased QoL and functional status among patients with cancer [10, 11]. Anemia impairs HRQoL by causing a variety of symptoms from mild headache to cognitive impairment [3, 12]. Frequent experience of anemia symptoms may have a negative impact on daily life [8, 13‐15]. Many studies on the relationship between anemia and QoL used relatively small samples or specific populations such as the elderly [7, 14, 15], patients with cancer [10, 11, 13, 16], and middle-aged women [17]. Therefore, we investigated the relationship between anemia and QoL using nationally representative data from the KNHANES.

Table 1 shows the baseline characteristics of the participants according to presence of anemia. Subjects with anemia had higher Hb and ferritin levels (both p < 0.001). Subjects with anemia were older and had lower protein intake, and there were lower percentage of men, smokers, alcohol drinkers, subjects with an education ≥9 years, subjects who lived in urban areas, subjects with hypercholesterolemia; however, there was a higher percentage of subjects with low income (Q1), who lived with their spouse, and had DM or CKD (all p < 0.001). Weight, body mass index, waist circumference, and total calorie intake were lower in subjects with anemia than in subjects without anemia (all p < 0.05). EQ-5D was also lower in subjects with anemia than in subjects without anemia (0.95 vs 0.93, respectively and p < 0.001).

Figure 1 shows the EQ-5D score according to the quartile of Hb levels. As the Hb levels increase, EQ-5D also increase from 0.933 to 0.970.

Table 2 shows the results of multiple linear regression analysis between Hb level and quality of life. As Hb level increases per 1 g/dL, the EQ-5D positively increases after adjusting for all covariates in model 3 (the estimate = 0.0016 ± 0.0005 and p < 0.001). Multiple linear regression analysis between other variables and EQ-5D is shown in Additional file 1: Table S1.

Figure 2 shows the prevalence of anemia according to the three levels of the five EQ-5D dimensions. As the level was changed from G1 to G3, the prevalence of anemia increased (all p for trend < 0.001), and there were significant differences among the three levels of each of the five dimensions of EQ-5D (all p < 0.001). The highest prevalence of anemia was found in the G3 level of each of the five EQ-5D dimensions in the following order (20.20% in usual activities, 15.53% in mobility, 14.25% in self-care, 13.45% in pain/discomfort, and 12.22% in anxiety/depression).

Multivariate logistic regression analysis was done in Table 3 to calculate the OR for low levels (G2 + G3) of each dimension of EQ-5D compared to subjects without anemia. Subjects with anemia had increased ORs for low levels of each dimension of EQ-5D in mobility, self-care, and usual activities (OR and 95% CI = 1.208(1.078, 1.353), 1.161(0.98, 1.376), and 1.331(1.173, 1.51)) after adjusting for all covariates. However, pain/discomfort and anxiety/depression were not associated with increased ORs for low levels of EQ-5D (Table 3). Multiple logistic regression analysis for the OR for low levels (G2 + G3) of each dimension of EQ-5D in other variables is shown in Additional file 1: Table S2.

In this study, anemia was more prevalent in subjects with low level of health status in each of the five dimensions of EQ-5D, and subjects with anemia had increased ORs for low EQ-5D, especially for mobility, self-care, and usual activities than subjects without anemia after adjusting for all covariates.

In this study, anemia was more prevalent among women and subjects with older age, poor nutritional status, lower education, and lower income level. Women of reproductive age (15–49 years) are known to be vulnerable to anemia worldwide [1]. The prevalence of anemia in US women aged 40–49 years is 10.7% [3]. The prevalence of anemia in Korean women aged 40–49 years was 16.1% in 2015, which is higher than in the US [4]. Firquet et al. reported that anemia in women in this age group may be caused by low iron intake, increased iron requirements, heavy menstrual bleeding, and malabsorption [17]. In particular, they reported that women of this age often restrict food intake or exercise excessively to lose weight [17]. In KNHANES 2008–2015, the rate of nutritional insufficiency among South Korean adults aged 30–49 years was 14.0% in women and 4.9% in men [4]. In general, poor income and lower education levels are known to be associated with reduced accessibility to medical services [23]. Therefore, subjects with anemia with lower level of socioeconomic status may not recognize their anemic status and may be left untreated [12, 13]. The symptoms of mild anemia in otherwise healthy adults are considered to be relatively not severe, yet they may continuously affect activities of daily living, especially in the elderly [7, 14, 15], due to the deterioration of overall body function [15, 24].

It has been reported that anemia affects QoL, especially physical performance, in the elderly and frail patients [7, 8, 13, 22, 25]. In the US, anemia is associated with mobility difficulty and lower mobility difficulty among women, after adjusting for chronic diseases [22]. Similarly, we found an association between anemia and HRQoL, namely in mobility, self-care, and usual activities. In the Korean Longitudinal Study on Health and Aging study, anemia was associated with activities of daily living in the elderly population, especially physical functioning and instrumental active daily living [7]. The nutrients ingested are synthesized as energy with the help of oxygen. However, Hb is decreased in subjects with anemia, and oxygen supply is reduced [3, 26]. This mechanism may explain why subjects with anemia have limited physical performance. Moreover, decline of muscle strength and muscle density is also associated with anemia [26], which results in the decline of mobility, self-care, and usual activities. Anemia is associated with chronic diseases such as cancer, CKD, and inflammatory bowel disease, which are commonly accompanied by iron deficiency, inflammation, and organ complications [8, 16]. These conditions may also cause pain. However, we did not find an association between anemia and pain in EQ-5D. Similarly, no significant relationship was found between anemia and QoL (pain) among Dutch patients with heart failure [27]. Inversely, anemia treatment could have a positive effect on most chronic diseases. It has been reported that the improvement of Hb levels is associated with QoL [8, 16, 17], and even a 1-g/dL increase in Hb from 11 g/dL to 12 g/dL resulted in an improvement of QoL [28]. In some studies, anemia and the level of anemia have been associated with depression and severity of depression [26, 29, 30], but our study did not show this relationship. Ethnic and cultural difference may be the reason for the different results, although low Hb level is associated with increased cerebral blood flow in frontal, hippocampal, and temporal regions, which are involved in depression pathways [31].

This study has some strengths. This is the first study using a large amount of nationwide data to examine the relationship between anemia and HRQoL. The association was evaluated by multiple logistic regression analyses after adjusting for various confounding factors. Moreover, we analyzed the association between anemia and HRQoL in each of the five dimensions of EQ-5D. However, our study has some limitations. First, a causal relationship between anemia and HRQoL could not be drawn from this study because of its cross-sectional design. Second, some health-related variables were not included as confounding factors (e.g., iron intake, supplement intake, or anemia-related inflammatory markers). Third, we only used EQ-5D to measure HRQoL, although there are many other tools for measuring HRQoL. Forth, we did not include people under 19, because different measurement tools were used to survey in subjects under 19 years old.

Low HRQoL was associated with anemia in South Korean adults, namely in the EQ-5D dimensions of mobility, self-care, and usual activities. Physicians should consider HRQoL in subjects with anemia. Moreover, the government do their effort to improve nutritional status of anemia patients to improve the HRQOL and further prospective studies about improving of HRQOL by the treatment of anemia are needed.