Background
Methods
Study area and design
Data collection
Ethical considerations
Data analysis
Results
Socio-economic and demographic profile
Variable | Total (N = 202) | Number/proportion (%) of respondents | χ 2 (p-value) | |||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Yombo | Chasimba | Kongo | Makurunge | |||
Sex
| ||||||
Male | 106 (52.5) | 28 (58.3) | 25 (45.5) | 23 (46.9) | 30 (60.0) | 3.49 (0.32) |
Female | 96 (47.5) | 20 (41.7) | 30 (54.6) | 26 (53.1) | 20 (40.0) | |
Age group
| ||||||
< 15 | 8 (3.96) | 0 (0.0) | 4 (7.27) | 1 (2.04) | 3 (6.0) | 21.41 (0.05) |
15-25 | 8 (16.67) | 16 (29.09) | 10 (20.41) | 12 (24) | 46 (22.8) | |
26-39 | 110 (54.5) | 22 (45.8) | 31 (56.4) | 29 (59.2) | 28 (56.0) | |
40-55 | 31 (15.4) | 14 (29.2) | 3 (5.5) | 8 (16.3) | (12.0) | |
> 55 | 7 (3.5) | 4 (8.3) | 1 (1.8) | 1 (2.0) | 1 (2.0) | |
Marital status
| ||||||
Married | 118 (60.2) | 31 (67.4) | 23 (42.6) | 31 (67.4) | 33 (66.0) | 22.54 (0.03) |
Single | 61 (31.1) | 7 (15.2) | 26 (48.2) | 12 (26.1) | 16 (32.0) | |
Widow | 6 (3.1) | 3 (6.5) | 2 (3.7) | 1 (2.2) | 0 (0.0) | |
Divorced | 5 (2.6) | 2 (4.4) | 1 (1.9) | 2 (4.4) | 0 (0.0) | |
Cohabiting | 6 (3.1) | 3 (6.5) | 2 (3.7) | 0 (0.0) | 1 (2.0) | |
Education level
| ||||||
No formal education | 22 (11.0) | 7 (14.6) | 3 (5.6) | 7 (14.3) | 5 (10.0) | 21.40 (0.05) |
Primary school | 134 (66.7) | 35 (72.9) | 29 (53.7) | 35 (71.4) | 35 (70.0) | |
Form IV | 38 (18.9) | 5 (10.4) | 18 (33.3) | 5 (10.2) | 10 (20.0) | |
High school | 4 (2.0) | 0 (0.0) | 2 (3.7) | 2 (4.1) | 0 (0.0) | |
Higher education | 3 (1.5) | 1 (2.1) | 2 (3.7) | 0 (0.0) | 0 (0.0) | |
Time of residential stay
| ||||||
<= 1 year | 24 (12.4) | 5 (10.9) | 9 (17.3) | 8 (17.0) | 2 (4.1) | |
2 - 5 yrs | 30 (15.5) | 4 (8.7) | 7 (13.5) | 8 (17.0) | 11 (22.5) | |
6 - 10 yrs | 32 (16.5) | 4 (8.7) | 10 (19.2) | 10 (21.3) | 8 (16.3) | 15.40 (0.22) |
11 - 15 years | 34 (17.5) | 9 (19.6) | 10 (19.2) | 5 (10.6) | 10 (20.4) | |
> 15 yrs | 74 (38.1) | 24 (52.2) | 16 (30.8) | 16 (34.0) | 18 (36.7) | |
Types of homesteads
| ||||||
Mud and grass | 61 (30.4) | 16 (34.0) | 12 (21.8) | 15 (30.6) | 18 (36.0) | |
Mud wall and metal roof | 101 (50.3) | 26 (55.3) | 25 (45.5) | 28 (57.1) | 22 (44.0) | |
Block wall and grass roof | 1 (0.5) | 0 (0.0) | 0 (0.0) | 0 (0.0) | 1 (2.0) | 19.34 (0.08) |
Block wall and metal roof | 37 (18.4) | 4 (8.5) | 18 (32.7) | 6 (12.2) | 9 (18.0) | |
Block wall and tiles | 1 (0.5) | 1 (2.1) | 0 (0.0) | 0 (0.0) | 0 (0.0) | |
Occupation
| ||||||
Peasant | 117 (58.2) | 34 (70.8) | 24 (44.4) | 28 (57.1) | 31 (62.0) | 28.3 (0.005) |
Housewife | 24 (11.9) | 4 (8.3) | 5 (9.3) | 10 (20.4) | 5 (10.0) | |
Self employed | 28 (13.9) | 4 (8.3) | 10 (18.5) | 5 (10.2) | 9 (18.0) | |
Civil servant | 27 (13.4) | 4 (8.3) | 15 (27.8) | 6 (12.2) | 2 (4.0) | |
Casual employment | 5 (2.5) | 2 (4.2) | 0 (0.0) | 0 (0.0) | 3 (6.0) |
People’s knowledge and practice on use of plants for controlling mosquitoes
Sno. | Swahili name | Common english name | Order | No. of responses (%) |
---|---|---|---|---|
1 | Mbu | Mosquito | Diptera | 30 (30.3) |
2 | Nyoka | Snake | Squamata | 15 (15.3) |
3 | Ng’e | Scorpion | Scorpiones | 11 (11.1) |
4 | Buibui | Spider | Argiope | 10 (10.1) |
5 | Siafu | Army ant | Hymenoptera | 6 (6.1) |
6 | Kunguni | Bed bug | Hemiptera | 6 (6.1) |
7 | Tandu | Centipede | Scolopendromorpha | 6 (6.1) |
8 | Mende | Cockroach | Blattaria | 4 (4.0) |
9 | Nyuki | Bee | Hymenoptera | 4 (4.0) |
10 | Mchwa | Termite | Blattaria | 3 (3.0) |
11 | Others | 4 (4.0) |
S. No | Swahili name | Species/Genus name (Voucher specimen number) | Family | No. of responses (%)* |
---|---|---|---|---|
1 | Mwarobaini, mwarobaini kamili | Azadirachta indica (ITM 3080) | Meliaceae | 38 (22.5) |
2 | Mtopetope, mtopetope mwitu, mtomoko, mtomoko mwitu, mchekwa, mtopetope pori | Annona squamosa (ASS-T-II), An. senegalesis (OT 00353) | Annonaceae | 29 (17.2) |
3 | Mchungwa, limau | Citrus limonium (ITM 433) | Rutaceae | 14 (8.3) |
4 | Mvumbashi, uvumbati | Ocimum suave (ITM 445.0303) | Laminaceae | 13 (7.7) |
5 | Mkorosho | Anacardium occidentale (TMRU 2876) | Anacardiaceae | 12 (7.1) |
6 | Mwembe | Mangifera indica (TMRU 963) | Myrtaceae | 10 (5.4) |
7 | Mpera | Psidium guajava (TMRU 2880) | Myrtaceae | 7 (4.1) |
8 | Maganda ya nazi | Cocos nucifera (TMRU 1510) | Arecaceae | 7 (4.1) |
10 | Mstafeli, | An. muricata (OT 00351) | Annonaceae | 6 (3.6) |
11 | Others | - | 34 (22.1) |
Variable | No. of respondents | % |
---|---|---|
How long does it take for the insect to die?
| ||
less than 1 hour | 11 | 34.38 |
1-6 hours | 14 | 43.75 |
7-12 hours | 6 | 18.75 |
13-24 hours | 1 | 3.13 |
How frequent do you apply
| ||
once a day | 18 | 56.3 |
once a week | 2 | 6.3 |
once a month | 2 | 6.3 |
once a year | 2 | 6.3 |
once necessary | 8 | 25.0 |
Modality of using/applying the plant
| ||
Cut to pieces and distribution | 7 | 21.9 |
Ground fresh materials distribution | 4 | 12.5 |
Soaking and spraying | 5 | 15.6 |
Smoking | 14 | 43.8 |
Placed in a ceiling | 2 | 6.3 |
Distances traveled to harvest the plant
| ||
< 1 km | 42 | 51.2 |
1-2 km | 17 | 20.7 |
2-5 km | 6 | 7.3 |
5 km | ||
Where do you apply it
|
No
|
%
|
Inside the house | 14 | 45.2 |
in dumping areas | 6 | 19.4 |
Around the house premise | 7 | 22.6 |
In water tanks | 3 | 9.7 |
In sewage systems | 1 | 3.2 |
Part of the plant used
|
No
|
%
|
Stem | 1 | 2.9 |
Leaves | 13 | 38.2 |
Roots | 14 | 41.2 |
Fruits | 5 | 14.7 |
Seeds | 1 | 2.9 |
Place of harvesting the plant
|
No
|
%
|
Farm | 24 | 28.9 |
Home garden | 5 | 6.0 |
Roadside | 2 | 2.4 |
Wild | 45 | 54.2 |
Forest reserve | 7 | 8.4 |
Knowledge about mosquito transmitted diseases, multiplication and control
Variable | No* | % |
---|---|---|
Knowledge of diseases caused by mosquitoes
| ||
Elephantiasis
|
118
|
58.4
|
Hydrocele
|
70
|
34.7
|
Malaria
|
183
|
90.6
|
Yellow fever
|
49
|
24.3
|
HIV
|
14
|
6.9
|
All of the above
|
1
|
0.5
|
Knowledge of places of mosquito breeding
| ||
Water and air | 22 | 10.9 |
Water and bush | 72 | 35.6 |
Stagnant water alone | 143 | 70.8 |
Air alone | 9 | 4.5 |
Bush alone | 43 | 21.3 |
Dumping sites | 71 | 35.1 |
Sewage systems | 92 | 45.5 |
Drainage systems | 53 | 26.2 |
Leaking taps | 27 | 13.4 |
Preventive measures
| ||
Using bednet | 128 | 63.4 |
Using treated bednet | 75 | 37.1 |
Using plants/herbs | 35 | 17.3 |
Filling stagnant water bodies | 121 | 59.9 |
Using insecticides residual sprays | 65 | 32.2 |
Keeping home premises clean | 69 | 34.2 |
Inspecting water bodies around the house premises | 46 | 22.8 |
Wearing long sleeves | 19 | 9.4 |
All of the above | 15 | 7.4 |
None of the above | 4 | 2.0 |
Village | Total | χ 2 (p-value) | ||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Yombo | Chasimba | Kongo | Makurunge | |||
Use of ITN
| ||||||
Yes | 14 (30.4) | 23 (42.6) | 19 (41.3) | 21 (42.9) | 77 (39.5) | 2.1 (0.55) |
No | 32 (69.6) | 31 (57.4) | 27 (58.7) | 28 (57.1) | 118 (60.5) | |
Use of plants/herbs
| ||||||
Yes | 3 (6.4) | 10 (18.5) | 9 (18.8) | 13 (26.5) | 35 (17.7) | 6.82 (0.08) |
No | 44 (93.6) | 44 (81.5) | 39 (81.3) | 36 (73.5) | 163 (82.3) | |
Insecticide residual spray
| ||||||
Yes | 10 (21.3) | 19 (35.2) | 16 (33.3) | 20 (40.8) | 65 (32.8) | 4.4 (0.22) |
No | 37 (78.7) | 35 (64.8) | 32 (66.7) | 29 (59.3) | 133 (67.2) |
Perceptions on the use of plants in mosquito control
Variable |
#
No of response | % |
---|---|---|
Attitude towards eliminating mosquitoes from our homestead
| ||
No, because mosquitoes are created by God | 17 | 8.4 |
Mosquitoes come with rain no one can control them | 35 | 17.3 |
No, mosquitoes are only seen after sun set | 14 | 6.9 |
Yes, by eliminating stagnant water | 81 | 40.1 |
Yes, by closing widows and doors | 22 | 10.9 |
Yes, by using indoor insecticide residual spray | 65 | 32.2 |
Yes, by spraying insecticide in stagnant water | 91 | 45.0 |
Yes, by using ITN | 77 | 38.1 |
Participation in mosquito control
| ||
Destroying or avoid creating stagnant water bodies | 118 | 58.4 |
It is the responsibility of the government | 9 | 4.5 |
Wait for the directives from the district malaria control focal person | 8 | 4.0 |
Community based programs of cleaning bushes | 72 | 35.6 |
Community based programs of applying safe insecticides in stagnant waters | 69 | 34.2 |
Reliance of plants as source of insecticides
| ||
We use them often | 35 | 17.3 |
It is an old practice | 46 | 22.8 |
We have many plants around us | 54 | 26.7 |
Not harmful like insecticides bought in the shop | 40 | 19.8 |
Plants are affordable, unlike insecticides | 59 | 29.2 |
Secondary data generated on ethnobotanical status and scientific investigations on the plants mentioned
Swahili name | Species/genus name | Name of other related species growing in Tanzania | Related Ethno botanical uses in insect management | Scientific studies | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
1 | Mwarobaini | Azadirachta indica (Maliaceae) | In Tanzania, leaves mixture with cow urine controls maize pests in the field; Also, infusion of leaves and tobacco powder are sprayed to control crop pests in the field [8] | Dried leaf powder is used to repel Culex quinquefasciatus[9]. | |
Larvicidal activity against Aedes aegyptis[10]. | |||||
Leaf, seed, seed oil, flower and fruit are used by Indians for control of Rice weevil [11]. | |||||
2 | Mtopetope; |
Annona squamosa
|
Annona cherimoya
| Indians use leaf, bark, root, stem and fruits for control of head lice and insects [11]. | |
Mtopetope | Annona reticulata L. | ||||
mwitu; |
Annona stenophylla
| ||||
Mtomoko | Annona senegalesis (Annonaceae) | Annona senegalensis Pers is used traditionally in Nigeria to treat victims of snakebite [16]. | Also leaf extract is used against Aedes adopticus[17]. | ||
Mchekwa; | Annona Montana[18]. | ||||
Mtopetope pori | |||||
Annona senegalensis
| |||||
leaves was effective against different stages of Caryedon serratus | |||||
development [19]. | |||||
3 | Mchugwa; Limau | Citrus spp (Rutaceae) |
C. aurantifolia
| Essential oils of C. aurantifolia, C. paradis, C. sinensis and C. limonium is used for control of Cowpea weevils (Callosobruchus maculatus) [21]. | |
C. paradis
| |||||
C. sinensis
| |||||
C. limonium
| |||||
C. aurantium
| |||||
C. aurantium. Essential oils are used to control tomato moth (Tuta absoluta) and Africa cotton leaf worm. (Spodoptera littoralis) [22]. | |||||
4 | Mvumbashi | Ocimum Spp (Laminaceae) |
O. americanum
| Leaves of O. suave are arranged in a bag of millet or maize to control pests [8]. | Essential oils of O. suave and O. kilimandscharium are Cx. Quinquefasciatus and Anopheles arabiensis repellant [25]. |
Uvumbati |
O. suave
| ||||
O. lamiifolium
| |||||
O. polystachyon
| Leaves of O. gratissimum are used in Nigeria in post harvest protection of maize [26]. | ||||
O. grantissimum
| Essential oils of O. canum and O. basilicum are used for control of Cowpea weevils (Callosobruchus maculatus) [27]. | ||||
O. kilimandscharium
| |||||
O. canum
| |||||
Hyptis suaveolens (Formally, O. basilicanum) | High protection time of essential oil of O. basilicum with ethyl alcohol, tested against three mosquito species, Aedes aegypti, Anopheles minimus and Culex quinquefasciatus[28]. | ||||
O. albosteblatum
| |||||
O. angustifolium
| |||||
O. gratissimum essential oil formulation repelled anopheline and culicine mosquitoes [29]. | |||||
O. obovatum[14]. | |||||
O. basilicum essential oil showed the strongest larvicidal activity while O. gratissimum exhibited the longest duration of action for mosquito repellent activity [30]. | |||||
5 | Mkorosho | Anacardium occidentale (Anacardiaceae) | The gum from stem of A. occidentale is used as an adhesive (for woodwork panels, plywood, bookbinding), partly because it has insecticidal properties [31]. | Powders and extracts of A. occidentale seeds were effective in controlling cowpea bruchid, C. maculatus in stored cowpea seeds [32]. | |
Larvicidal activities of aqueous extracts of Leaf, Bark and Nutshell of A. occidentale showed insecticidal properties on the An. gambiae[33]. | |||||
6 | Mstafeli |
An.muricata
| Leaves of An. muricata are used by phu thai tribe in Lao People’s Democratic Republic to repel bedbugs and lice [20]. | ||
7 | Mwembe |
Mangifera indica
| Leaves of M. indica is used in uMkhanyakude district, KwaZulu-Natal province, South Africa as mosquito insect repellent [35]. | ||
(Myrtaceae) | |||||
8 | Maganda ya nazi |
Cocos nucifera
| |||
(Arecaceae) | |||||
9 | Mpera |
Psidium Spp
|
P. guajava
| ||
(Myrtaceae) |
P. cattleianum
| ||||
P. friedrichsthalianum
| |||||