Background
Methods
Study population
Retinal photography and measurement of retinal vascular caliber
Blood pressure measurement
Other measurements
Statistical analysis
Results
Characteristics | Male | Female |
P
|
---|---|---|---|
(n = 792) | (n = 709) | ||
Age (year) | 12.66 (0.50) | 12.73 (0.49) |
0.004
|
Spherical equivalent refraction (diopters) | −1.78 (2.08) | − 1.32 (2.02) |
< 0.001
|
Axial length (mm) | 23.93 (1.01) | 24.35 (1.09) |
< 0.001
|
Systolic blood pressure (mm Hg) | 104.55 (10.87) | 107.36 (10.35) |
< 0.001
|
Diastolic blood pressure (mm Hg) | 65.35 (7.57) | 65.45 (7.21) | 0.758 |
Mean arterial blood pressure (mm Hg) | 78.42 (8.23) | 79.41 (7.63) |
0.005
|
BMI (kg/m2) | 19.32 (3.22) | 20.28 (3.91) |
< 0.001
|
Waist (cm) | 69.04 (7.84) | 71.92 (10.14) |
< 0.001
|
n | Range (mm Hg) | Rentinal Arteriolar Diameter (μm) | Rentinal Venular Diameter (μm) | AVR | |||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Model 1 | Model 2 | Model 3 | Model 1 | Model 2 | Model 3 | Model 1 | Model 2 | ||||
SBP | First quartile | 375 | 79 to 100 | 149.02 ± 1.31 | 148.70 ± 0.62 | 147.91 ± 0.56 | 214.54 ± 0.63 | 214.91 ± 0.79 | 212.96 ± 0.71 | 0.696 ± 0.004 | 0.688 ± 0.007 |
Second quartile | 365 | 101 to 107 | 146.17 ± 0.62 | 146.19 ± 0.61 | 146.20 ± 0.54 | 213.16 ± 0.30 | 212.65 ± 0.77 | 212.12 ± 0.69 | 0.687 ± 0.002 | 0.685 ± 0.008 | |
Third quartile | 373 | 107 to 113 | 144.24 ± 0.54 | 144.22 ± 0.60 | 144.36 ± 0.54 | 212.23 ± 0.20 | 212.30 ± 0.76 | 212.89 ± 0.68 | 0.681 ± 0.002 | 0.683 ± 0.008 | |
Fourth quartile | 388 | 113 to 142 | 141.63 ± 1.36 | 141.99 ± 0.61 | 142.62 ± 0.55 | 210.97 ± 0.65 | 210.91 ± 0.78 | 212.76 ± 0.70 | 0.672 ± 0.004 | 0.680 ± 0.009 | |
P for trend
|
< 0.001
|
0.001
|
< 0.001
|
< 0.001
|
0.038
| 0.941 |
< 0.001
|
< 0.0001
| |||
DBP | First quartile | 323 | 49 to 61 | 147.96 ± 2.50 | 149.14 ± 0.65 | 148.15 ± 0.58 | 214.04 ± 1.21 | 215.49 ± 0.82 | 213.29 ± 0.75 | 0.692 ± 0.007 | 0.687 ± 0.007 |
Second quartile | 407 | 61 to 65 | 145.95 ± 2.18 | 146.21 ± 0.57 | 146.19 ± 0.51 | 213.06 ± 1.05 | 212.73 ± 0.73 | 212.19 ± 0.65 | 0.686 ± 0.007 | 0.685 ± 0.008 | |
Third quartile | 360 | 66 to 70 | 144.49 ± 2.20 | 144.53 ± 0.61 | 144.92 ± 0.55 | 212.35 ± 1.06 | 211.60 ± 0.77 | 212.01 ± 0.69 | 0.682 ± 0.007 | 0.683 ± 0.008 | |
Fourth quartile | 411 | 70 to 90 | 142.99 ± 2.28 | 141.84 ± 0.58 | 142.31 ± 0.52 | 211.62 ± 1.10 | 211.36 ± 0.73 | 213.29 ± 0.66 | 0.677 ± 0.007 | 0.682 ± 0.010 | |
P for trend
|
< 0.001
|
0.005
|
0.009
|
< 0.001
| 0.078 | 0.970 |
< 0.001
|
< 0.0001
| |||
MABP | First quartile | 370 | 60 to 75 | 148.62 ± 1.80 | 149.31 ± 0.61 | 148.24 ± 0.55 | 214.36 ± 0.87 | 215.75 ± 0.78 | 213.47 ± 0.71 | 0.695 ± 0.005 | 0.687 ± 0.007 |
Second quartile | 366 | 75 to 79 | 145.96 ± 1.55 | 145.81 ± 0.60 | 145.98 ± 0.54 | 213.07 ± 0.75 | 212.18 ± 0.77 | 211.87 ± 0.69 | 0.686 ± 0.005 | 0.685 ± 0.008 | |
Third quartile | 400 | 79 to 84 | 144.28 ± 1.59 | 144.36 ± 0.58 | 144.56 ± 0.52 | 212.25 ± 0.77 | 212.12 ± 0.73 | 212.62 ± 0.66 | 0.681 ± 0.005 | 0.683 ± 0.008 | |
Fourth quartile | 365 | 84 to 102 | 142.14 ± 1.84 | 141.50 ± 0.62 | 142.21 ± 0.56 | 211.22 ± 0.89 | 210.67 ± 0.79 | 212.78 ± 0.72 | 0.674 ± 0.005 | 0.680 ± 0.010 | |
P for trend
|
< 0.001
|
0.011
|
0.004
|
< 0.001
| 0.086 | 0.738 |
< 0.001
|
< 0.0001
|
Retinal arteriolar diameter (μm) | Retinal venular diameter (μm) | AVR | ||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Mean (95%CI) |
P
| Mean (95%CI) |
P
| Mean (95%CI) |
P
| |
SBP | ||||||
Model 1 | −3.23(− 3.96 to −2.52) |
< 0.001
| −1.57(− 2.50 to − 0.63) |
< 0.001
| −0.01 (− 0.013 to − 0.007) |
< 0.001
|
Model 2 | − 3.07 (− 3.79 to − 2.34) |
< 0.001
| − 2.06 (− 2.97 to − 1.15) |
< 0.001
| − 0.007(− 0.010 to − 0.004) |
< 0.001
|
Model 3 | −2.34 (− 3.00 to − 1.69) |
< 0.001
| − 0.34 (− 1.18 to 0.50) | 0.428 |
–
|
–
|
DBP | ||||||
Model 1 | −3.85(− 4.88 to −2.82) |
< 0.001
| − 1.47 (− 2.78 to − 0.15) |
< 0.001
| −0.013 (− 0.017 to − 0.009) |
< 0.001
|
Model 2 | − 4.02 (− 4.96 to − 3.08) |
< 0.001
| − 2.34 (− 3.53 to − 1.15) |
< 0.001
| − 0.011(− 0.015 to − 0.007) |
< 0.001
|
Model 3 | −3.20 (− 4.05 to − 2.35) |
< 0.001
| − 0.06 (− 1.16 to 1.03) | 0.909 |
–
|
–
|
MABP | ||||||
Model 1 | − 4.37(−5.35 to −3.39) |
< 0.001
| − 1.84 (− 3.11 to − 0.56) |
< 0.001
| −0.014 (− 0.019 to − 0.010) |
< 0.001
|
Model 2 | − 4.40 (− 5.34 to − 3.47) |
< 0.001
| −2.69 (− 3.88 to − 1.50) |
< 0.001
| − 0.012(− 0.016 to − 0.007) |
< 0.001
|
Model 3 | −3.47 (− 4.31 to − 2.62) |
< 0.001
| −0.21 (− 1.31 to 0.89) | 0.712 |
–
|
–
|
Potential Effect Modifiers |
n
| Retinal Arteriolar Diameter (μm) | |||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Model 1 |
p
| Model 2 |
P
| Model 3 |
P
| ||||
SBP | Age | 10 + 11 | 70 | −1.97 ± 1.66 | 0.238 | −0.60 ± 1.79 | 0.736 | −1.28 ± 1.54 | 0.411 |
12 | 1122 | −3.63 ± 0.43 |
< 0.01
| − 3.31 ± 0.42 |
<.001
| − 2.46 ± 0.39 |
<.001
| ||
13 + 14 + 15 | 309 | −2.6 ± 0.82 |
< 0.01
| − 2.60 ± 0.84 |
0.002
| −1.98 ± 0.73 |
0.007
| ||
Sex | Male | 792 | −3.1 ± 0.52 |
< 0.01
| − 3.41 ± 0.52 |
<.001
| −2.57 ± 0.45 |
<.001
| |
Female | 709 | −3.05 ± 0.52 |
< 0.01
| − 2.73 ± 0.52 |
<.001
| −2.12 ± 0.49 |
<.001
| ||
BMI | Upper 50% | 750 | −2.37 ± 0.57 |
< 0.01
| −2.39 ± 0.5 |
<.001
| −1.72 ± 0.49 |
<.001
| |
Lower 50% | 751 | −4.03 ± 0.55 |
< 0.01
| −3.71 ± 0.52 |
<.001
| −2.89 ± 0.46 |
<.001
| ||
Birth weight | Upper 50% | 778 | −3.69 ± 0.53 |
< 0.01
| −3.09 ± 0.53 |
<.001
| −2.35 ± 0.48 |
<.001
| |
Lower 50% | 723 | −2.87 ± 0.51 |
< 0.01
| −2.97 ± 0.52 |
<.001
| −2.28 ± 0.47 |
<.001
| ||
Gestational age | Term | 1372 | −3.27 ± 0.39 |
< 0.01
| − 3.10 ± 0.39 |
<.001
| −2.33 ± 0.35 |
<.001
| |
Preterm | 129 | −3.06 ± 1.09 |
< 0.01
| −2.46 ± 1.12 |
0.03
| −2.21 ± 1.02 |
0.033
| ||
DBP | Age | 10 + 11 | 70 | −1.84 ± 2.04 | 0.370 | −0.78 ± 2.18 | 0.722 | − 1.81 ± 1.88 | 0.342 |
12 | 1122 | −4.85 ± 0.62 |
< 0.01
| −4.74 ± 0.56 |
<.001
| −3.76 ± 0.51 |
<.001
| ||
13 + 14 + 15 | 309 | −1.35 ± 1.11 |
< 0.01
| −2.27 ± 1.08 |
0.037
| −1.36 ± 0.95 | 0.154 | ||
Sex | Male | 792 | −4.2 ± 0.74 |
< 0.01
| − 4.65 ± 0.69 |
<.001
| −3.67 ± 0.60 |
<.001
| |
Female | 709 | −3.68 ± 0.72 |
< 0.01
| −3.46 ± 0.67 |
<.001
| −2.79 ± 0.62 |
<.001
| ||
BMI | Upper 50% | 750 | −3.33 ± 0.75 |
< 0.01
| −3.73 ± 0.68 |
<.001
| −3.06 ± 0.62 |
<.001
| |
Lower 50% | 751 | −4 ± 0.75 |
< 0.01
| −4.30 ± 0.68 |
<.001
| −3.34 ± 0.60 |
<.001
| ||
Birth weight | Upper 50% | 778 | −3.83 ± 0.73 |
< 0.01
| −3.73 ± 0.66 |
<.001
| −3.01 ± 0.59 |
<.001
| |
Lower 50% | 723 | −3.92 ± 0.75 |
< 0.01
| −4.31 ± 0.70 |
<.001
| −3.42 ± 0.64 |
<.001
| ||
Gestational age | Term | 1372 | −3.89 ± 0.55 |
< 0.01
| −3.95 ± 0.51 |
<.001
| −3.10 ± 0.46 |
<.001
| |
Preterm | 129 | −3.32 ± 1.57 |
< 0.01
| −4.35 ± 1.50 |
0.005
| −3.69 ± 1.39 |
0.009
| ||
MABP | Age | 10 + 11 | 70 | −2.21 ± 2.03 | 0.280 | −0.81 ± 2.17 | 0.709 | −1.83 ± 1.88 | 0.334 |
12 | 1122 | −5.22 ± 0.58 |
< 0.01
| −5.01 ± 0.56 |
<.001
| −3.91 ± 0.51 |
<.001
| ||
13 + 14 + 15 | 309 | −2.41 ± 1.09 |
< 0.01
| −3.00 ± 1.09 |
0.006
| −2.04 ± 0.95 |
0.034
| ||
Sex | Male | 792 | −4.40 ± 0.70 |
< 0.01
| −4.91 ± 0.68 |
<.001
| −3.81 ± 0.59 |
<.001
| |
Female | 709 | −4.21 ± 0.70 |
< 0.01
| −3.89 ± 0.68 |
<.001
| −3.12 ± 0.64 |
<.001
| ||
BMI | Upper 50% | 750 | −3.58 ± 0.75 |
< 0.01
| −3.88 ± 0.68 |
<.001
| −3.06 ± 0.63 |
<.001
| |
Lower 50% | 751 | −4.90 ± 0.73 |
< 0.01
| − 4.87 ± 0.68 |
<.001
| −3.81 ± 0.60 |
<.001
| ||
Birth weight | Upper 50% | 778 | −4.68 ± 0.71 |
< 0.01
| −4.31 ± 0.68 |
<.001
| −3.40 ± 0.61 |
<.001
| |
Lower 50% | 723 | −4.11 ± 0.70 |
< 0.01
| −4.42 ± 0.68 |
<.001
| −3.49 ± 0.62 |
<.001
| ||
Gestational age | Term | 1372 | −4.40 ± 0.53 |
< 0.01
| −4.38 ± 0.51 |
<.001
| −3.39 ± 0.46 |
<.001
| |
Preterm | 129 | −3.98 ± 1.49 |
< 0.01
| −4.23 ± 1.47 |
0.005
| −3.66 ± 1.35 |
0.008
|
Potential Effect Modifiers | n | Retinal Venular Diameter (μm) | |||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Model 1 |
p
| Model 2 |
P
| Model 3 |
P
| ||||
SBP | Age | 10 + 11 | 70 | 0.40 ± 2.16 | 0.855 | 1.43 ± 1.99 | 0.476 | 1.78 ± 1.71 | 0.302 |
12 | 1122 | −2.1 ± 0.55 |
< 0.001
| −2.52 ± 0.54 | <.001 | −0.73 ± 0.50 | 0.148 | ||
13 + 14 + 15 | 309 | − 0.53 ± 1.08 | 0.622 | −1.61 ± 1.06 | 0.129 | 0.02 ± 0.94 | 0.986 | ||
Sex | Male | 792 | −1.12 ± 0.66 | 0.092 | −2.03 ± 0.65 |
0.002
| 0.14 ± 0.57 | 0.809 | |
Female | 709 | −1.72 ± 0.69 |
0.013
| −2.15 ± 0.68 |
0.002
| −0.85 ± 0.64 | 0.186 | ||
BMI | Upper 50% | 750 | −1.66 ± 0.75 |
0.028
| −2.11 ± 0.69 |
0.002
| −0.84 ± 0.64 | 0.186 | |
Lower 50% | 751 | −2.67 ± 0.69 |
< 0.001
| −2.13 ± 0.64 |
0.001
| 0.06 ± 0.58 | 0.923 | ||
Birth weight | Upper 50% | 778 | −1.97 ± 0.68 |
0.004
| −2.05 ± 0.67 |
0.002
| −0.27 ± 0.61 | 0.654 | |
Lower 50% | 723 | −1.19 ± 0.67 | 0.074 | −2.06 ± 0.66 |
0.002
| −0.43 ± 0.61 | 0.478 | ||
Gestational age | Term | 1372 | −1.61 ± 0.5 |
0.001
| −2.19 ± 0.49 |
<.001
| −0.46 ± 0.45 | 0.309 | |
Preterm | 129 | −1.13 ± 1.55 | 0.467 | −0.88 ± 1.64 | 0.594 | 0.62 ± 1.53 | 0.688 | ||
DBP | Age | 10 + 11 | 70 | 2.59 ± 2.64 | 0.330 | 2.16 ± 2.42 | 0.376 | 2.62 ± 2.08 | 0.213 |
12 | 1122 | −2.42 ± 0.79 |
0.002
| −2.91 ± 0.72 |
<.001
| −0.31 ± 0.67 | 0.648 | ||
13 + 14 + 15 | 309 | 0.3 ± 1.45 | 0.838 | −2.33 ± 1.36 | 0.089 | −0.92 ± 1.20 | 0.442 | ||
Sex | Male | 792 | −1.11 ± 0.94 | 0.239 | −2.38 ± 0.86 |
0.006
| 0.60 ± 0.76 | 0.433 | |
Female | 709 | −1.96 ± 0.96 |
0.042
| −2.35 ± 0.86 |
0.007
| −0.69 ± 0.82 | 0.4 | ||
BMI | Upper 50% | 750 | −1.42 ± 0.99 | 0.151 | −2.12 ± 0.89 |
0.017
| −0.10 ± 0.82 | 0.907 | |
Lower 50% | 751 | −2.11 ± 0.95 |
0.026
| −2.46 ± 0.84 |
0.004
| 0.07 ± 0.76 | 0.93 | ||
Birth weight | Upper 50% | 778 | −1.47 ± 0.93 | 0.112 | −1.98 ± 0.84 |
0.018
| 0.18 ± 0.76 | 0.811 | |
Lower 50% | 723 | −1.48 ± 0.98 | 0.132 | −2.65 ± 0.90 |
0.003
| −0.28 ± 0.83 | 0.733 | ||
Gestational age | Term | 1372 | −1.59 ± 0.71 |
0.024
| −2.37 ± 0.64 |
<.001
| −0.15 ± 0.58 | 0.798 | |
Preterm | 129 | −0.02 ± 2.2 | 0.994 | −2.43 ± 2.23 | 0.278 | 0.18 ± 2.12 | 0.931 | ||
MABP | Age | 10 + 11 | 70 | 1.92 ± 2.65 | 0.469 | 2.13 ± 2.41 | 0.38 | 2.61 ± 2.07 | 0.213 |
12 | 1122 | −2.75 ± 0.76 |
< 0.001
| −3.32 ± 0.71 |
<.001
| − 0.59 ± 0.67 | 0.38 | ||
13 + 14 + 15 | 309 | − 0.12 ± 1.43 | 0.933 | −2.48 ± 1.37 | 0.072 | −0.62 ± 1.21 | 0.609 | ||
Sex | Male | 792 | −1.34 ± 0.89 | 0.133 | −2.68 ± 0.85 |
0.002
| 0.47 ± 0.75 | 0.535 | |
Female | 709 | −2.25 ± 0.94 |
0.017
| −2.76 ± 0.88 |
0.002
| −0.90 ± 0.84 | 0.284 | ||
BMI | Upper 50% | 750 | −1.89 ± 0.99 | 0.056 | −2.63 ± 0.89 |
0.003
| −0.55 ± 0.83 | 0.513 | |
Lower 50% | 751 | −2.85 ± 0.93 |
0.002
| −2.74 ± 0.83 |
0.001
| 0.13 ± 0.76 | 0.868 | ||
Birth weight | Upper 50% | 778 | −2.13 ± 0.91 |
0.020
| −2.52 ± 0.86 |
0.003
| −0.02 ± 0.78 | 0.978 | |
Lower 50% | 723 | −1.55 ± 0.92 | 0.093 | −2.80 ± 0.87 |
0.001
| −0.38 ± 0.81 | 0.643 | ||
Gestational age | Term | 1372 | −1.94 ± 0.68 |
0.004
| −2.78 ± 0.64 |
<.001
| −0.33 ± 0.59 | 0.577 | |
Preterm | 129 | −0.72 ± 2.13 | 0.736 | −2.07 ± 2.18 | 0.345 | 0.49 ± 2.07 | 0.812 |
Potential Effect Modifiers |
n
| AVR | |||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Model 1 |
p
| Model 2 |
P
| ||||
SBP | Age | 10 + 11 | 70 | −0.010 ± 0.006 |
0.118
| −0.007 ± 0.007 | 0.37 |
12 | 1122 | −0.010 ± 0.002 |
<.001
| −0.007 ± 0.002 |
<.001
| ||
13 + 14 + 15 | 309 | −0.010 ± 0.003 |
0.002
| −0.007 ± 0.004 | 0.05 | ||
Sex | Male | 792 | −0.010 ± 0.002 |
<.001
| −0.009 ± 0.002 |
<.001
| |
Female | 709 | −0.009 ± 0.006 |
<.001
| −0.006 ± 0.002 |
0.02
| ||
BMI | Upper 50% | 750 | −0.006 ± 0.002 |
0.020
| −0.005 ± 0.002 | 0.06 | |
Lower 50% | 751 | −0.010 ± 0.002 |
<.001
| −0.010 ± 0.002 |
<.001
| ||
Birth weight | Upper 50% | 778 | −0.010 ± 0.002 |
<.001
| −0.007 ± 0.002 |
0.001
| |
Lower 50% | 723 | −0.010 ± 0.002 |
<.001
| −0.007 ± 0.002 |
0.002
| ||
Gestational age | Term | 1372 | −0.010 ± 0.002 |
<.001
| −0.007 ± 0.001 |
<.001
| |
Preterm | 129 | −0.010 ± 0.004 |
0.035
| −0.008 ± 0.007 |
0.015
| ||
DBP | Age | 10 + 11 | 70 | −0.016 ± 0.008 |
0.046
| −0.009 ± 0.009 | 0.314 |
12 | 1122 | −0.015 ± 0.002 |
<.001
| −0.013 ± 0.002 |
<.001
| ||
13 + 14 + 15 | 309 | −0.007 ± 0.005 | 0.136 | −0.003 ± 0.004 | 0.493 | ||
Sex | Male | 792 | −0.016 ± 0.003 |
<.001
| −0.014 ± 0.003 |
<.001
| |
Female | 709 | −0.011 ± 0.006 |
0.003
| −0.009 ± 0.003 |
0.009
| ||
BMI | Upper 50% | 750 | −0.011 ± 0.003 |
<.001
| −0.011 ± 0.003 |
<.001
| |
Lower 50% | 751 | −0.012 ± 0.003 |
<.001
| −0.012 ± 0.003 |
<.001
| ||
Birth weight | Upper 50% | 778 | −0.013 ± 0.019 |
<.001
| −0.011 ± 0.003 |
<.001
| |
Lower 50% | 723 | −0.013 ± 0.003 |
<.001
| −0.012 ± 0.003 |
<.001
| ||
Gestational age | Term | 1372 | −0.013 ± 0.002 |
<.001
| −0.011 ± 0.002 |
<.001
| |
Preterm | 129 | −0.015 ± 0.007 |
0.03
| −0.012 ± 0.007 | 0.137 | ||
MABP | Age | 10 + 11 | 70 | −0.016 ± 0.008 |
0.048
| −0.009 ± 0.009 | 0.302 |
12 | 1122 | −0.015 ± 0.002 |
<.001
| −0.013 ± 0.002 |
<.001
| ||
13 + 14 + 15 | 309 | −0.010 ± 0.005 |
0.02
| −0.006 ± 0.005 | 0.192 | ||
Sex | Male | 792 | −0.016 ± 0.002 |
<.001
| −0.014 ± 0.002 |
<.001
| |
Female | 709 | −0.013 ± 0.003 |
<.001
| −0.009 ± 0.003 |
0.005
| ||
BMI | Upper 50% | 750 | −0.010 ± 0.003 |
<.001
| −0.010 ± 0.003 |
0.002
| |
Lower 50% | 751 | −0.014 ± 0.003 |
<.001
| −0.012 ± 0.003 |
<.001
| ||
Birth weight | Upper 50% | 778 | −0.015 ± 0.003 |
<.001
| −0.012 ± 0.003 |
<.001
| |
Lower 50% | 723 | −0.014 ± 0.003 |
<.001
| −0.007 ± 0.007 |
<.001
| ||
Gestational age | Term | 1372 | −0.014 ± 0.002 |
<.001
| −0.012 ± 0.002 |
<.001
| |
Preterm | 129 | −0.016 ± 0.006 |
0.018
| −0.012 ± 0.007 | 0.108 |