Introduction
Methods
Study population
Data collection
-
Step 1 Questionnaire. Information about sociodemographic, lifestyle characteristics, and meal patterns was collected. The short version of the International Physical Activity Questionnaire (IPAQ) was used to assess physical activity among participants. Three categories of physical activity (low, moderate, and high) were assigned based on METS-min per week [14]. Dietary intake of participants was assessed by a 61-item food frequency questionnaire (FFQ) that measured food intake over the past year. For each food item listed on the FFQ, a standard portion size was indicated and five frequency choices were given. This FFQ was designed by a panel of nutritionists and included culture-specific dishes and recipes. It was tested on a convenient sample to check for clarity and cultural sensitivity. Daily gram intakes of food items, energy, and macronutrients intake of participants were computed using the food composition data base of the Nutritionist IV software [15]. The FFQ was administered by a trained dietitian.
-
Step 2 Anthropometric measurements including weight, height, and waist circumference were taken using standardized techniques and calibrated equipments. Blood pressure was measured using a standard mercury sphygmomanometer, after participants were seated and rested for 5 min.
-
Step 3 Biochemical measurements. Blood samples were collected from after an overnight fast. Serum was centrifuged on site and shipped on dry ice to the American University of Beirut Laboratory. Levels of TAG, HDL-C, and glucose were measured by an enzymatic spectrophotometeric technique using Vitros 350 analyzer (Ortho-Clinical Diagnostics, Johnson & Jhonson, 50–100 Holmers Farm Way, High Wycombe, Buckighamshire, HP12 4DP, United Kingdom). The inter-assay variation of measurements did not exceed 4%. Quality control was performed within each run using standard performance verifier solutions provided by Ortho-Clinical Diagnostics. All samples were analyzed in duplicates, and the average value was used in statistical analysis.
Definition of metabolic syndrome
Dietary patterns derivation
Statistical analyses
Results
Demographic and lifestyle variables | Participants with MetS (n = 112) | Paticipants without MetS (n = 211) | Significancea
|
---|---|---|---|
Age (years) | 42.83 ± 15.34 | 36.50 ± 13.91 |
p < 0.001 |
Sex |
X
2 = 9.994, p < 0.05 | ||
Males | 69 (61.6) | 91 (43.1) | |
Females | 43 (38.4) | 120 (56.9) | |
Marital status |
X
2 = 6.575, p < 0.05 | ||
Single | 32 (28.6) | 91 (43.1) | |
Married | 80 (71.4) | 120 (56.9) | |
Education |
X
2 = 11.469, p < 0.05 | ||
Less than complimentary | 58 (51.8) | 69 (32.7) | |
High school | 28 (25.0) | 67 (31.8) | |
University and Higher education | 26 (23.2) | 75 (35.5) | |
Family history of obesity |
X
2 = 0.298, p > 0.05 | ||
No | 67 (59.8) | 119 (56.7) | |
Yes | 45 (40.2) | 91 (43.3) | |
Smoking |
X
2 = 1.155, p > 0.05 | ||
No | 72 (64.3) | 148 (70.1) | |
Yes | 40 (35.7) | 63 (29.9) | |
Physical activity level |
X
2 = 1.180, p > 0.05 | ||
Low | 42 (37.5) | 75 (35.5) | |
Moderate | 25 (22.3) | 39 (18.5) | |
High | 45 (40.2) | 97 (46.0) | |
Crowding indexb
| 1.14 ± 0.62 | 1.11 ± 0.55 |
p > 0.05 |
Breakfast per week | 4.89 ± 2.82 | 4.93 ± 2.75 |
p > 0.05 |
Snack per day | 1.85 ± 0.90 | 1.85 ± 0.97 |
p > 0.05 |
Eating at TV per week | 2.72 ± 3.14 | 2.88 ± 3.20 |
p > 0.05 |
Eating out per week | 3.90 ± 3.47 | 3.68 ± 3.44 |
p > 0.05 |
Anthropometric and clinical characteristics | |||
BMI(Kg/m2) | 29.6 ± 4.7 | 25.3 ± 4.6 |
p < 0.05 |
% Overweight | 92 (49.2) | 95 (45.5) |
X
2 = 41.8; p < 0.001 |
% Obese | 46 (41.4) | 30 (14.4) |
X
2 = 29.4; p < 0.001 |
Triacylglycerols (mg/dl) | 194.0 ± 86.5 | 108.01 ± 51.48 |
p < 0.05 |
% Elevated serum triacylglycerols | 76 (67.9) | 24 (11.4) |
X
2 = 109.2; p < 0.001 |
HDL-C (mg/dl) | 44.2 ± 12.1 | 54.8 ± 14.1 |
p < 0.05 |
% Reduced HDL-C | 60 (53.6) | 42 (19.9) |
X
2 = 38.4; p < 0.001 |
Serum glucose (mg/dl) | 115.8 ± 28.0 | 97.0 ± 16.3 |
p < 0.05 |
% Elevated glucose | 88 (78.6) | 60 (28.4) |
X
2 = 74.1; p < 0.001 |
Mean systolic blood pressure (mm Hg) | 133.3 ± 17.6 | 119.2 ± 13.2 |
p < 0.05 |
Mean diastolic blood pressure(mm Hg) | 80.9 ± 10.5 | 74.3 ± 9.0 |
p < 0.05 |
%With hypertension | 77 (68.8) | 53 (25.1) |
X
2 = 57.9; p < 0.001 |
Mean waist circumference (cm) | 97.1 ± 11.8 | 83.8 ± 12.2 |
p < 0.05 |
% Elevated waist circumference | 90 (80.4) | 77 (36.5) |
X
2 = 56.4; p < 0.001 |
Dietary patterns | |||
---|---|---|---|
Fast food/dessert | Traditional Lebanese | High protein | |
Hamburger |
0.76
| – | |
Chawarma |
0.72
| – | – |
Pizza and pies |
0.70
| – | – |
Falafel Sandwiches |
0.61
| – | – |
Desserts |
0.41
| 0.23 | – |
Carbonated beverages and juices |
0.40
| – | – |
Mayonnaise |
0.35
| – | – |
Butter | 0.22 | – | – |
Alcoholic beverages | 0.20 | – | – |
Dairy products-full fat |
–
|
0.58
| – |
Olives | – |
0.56
| – |
Fruits | –0.22 |
0.49
| 0.21 |
Legumes |
0.47
| – | |
Grains | 0.27 |
0.47
| – |
Eggs | 0.21 |
0.45
| – |
Vegetable oil | – |
0.43
| – |
Nuts and dried fruits | 0.27 |
0.40
| – |
Traditional sweets | – |
0.37
| – |
Vegetables | – | 0.34 | – |
Fish | – | – |
0.70
|
Chicken | 0.21 | – |
0.69
|
Meat | 0.22 | – |
0.60
|
Dairy products-low fat | – | –0.29 |
0.54
|
Breakfast cereals | – | – | 0.23 |
Hot drinks | – | – | – |
Percent variance explained by each pattern | 13.11 | 9.71 | 7.80 |
Dietary patterns | |||
---|---|---|---|
Fast food/dessert | Traditional Lebanese | High protein | |
Total energy | 0.66**
| 0.59**
| 0.23**
|
Protein | −0.18**
| −0.28**
| 0.60**
|
Carbohydrates | −0.10 | 0.07 | −0.12*
|
Fat | 0.19*
| 0.07 | 0.04*
|
Cholesterol | 0.05 | −0.03 | 0.28**
|
Saturated fat | 0.26**
| −0.07 | −0.07 |
Omega 6 fatty acids | −0.06 | 0.23**
| −0.13**
|
Fiber | −0.31**
| 0.31**
| 0.19**
|
Alcohol | 0.11 | −0.05 | −0.06 |
Sugars | 0.30**
| −0.02 | −0.12*
|
Sociodemographic and lifestyle characteristic | Fast food/dessert | Traditional Lebanese pattern | High protein pattern | |||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
β | 95% CI | β | 95% CI | β | 95% CI | |
Age | −0.03 | (−0.05)–(−0.01) | 0.10 | 0.01–0.32 | 0.01 | (−0.02)–0.04 |
Males versus females | 0.60 | 0.14–1.06 | 0.06 | (−0.12)–1.14 | −0.09 | (−0.79)–0.61 |
Crowding index | 0.51 | 0.16–0.87 | 0.02 | (−0.37)–0.41 | −0.23 | (−0.77)–0.31 |
Education | 0.17 | (−0.08)–0.43 | −0.11 | (−0.39)–0.17 | 0.11 | (−0.27)–0.50 |
Married versus unmarried | −0.09 | (−0.53)–0.35 | −0.05 | (−0.54)–0.44 | −0.38 | (−1.05)–0.29 |
Smokers versus non-smokers | 0.38 | (−0.09)–0.84 | −0.18 | (−0.69)–0.34 | −0.78 | (−1.48)–(−0.07) |
Existence of family history of obesity | −0.03 | (−0.42)–0.35 | 0.03 | (−0.39)–0.46 | −0.16 | (−0.75)–0.42 |
Physical activity | 0.09 | (−0.12)–0.30 | 0.00 | (−0.24)–0.24 | 0.43 | 0.11–0.76 |
Breakfast consumption per week | −0.06 | (−0.14)–0.01 | 0.03 | (−0.05)–0.11 | 0.06 | (−0.05)–0.17 |
Snack consumption per day | 0.44 | 0.23–0.66 | 0.28 | 0.04–0.52 | 0.21 | (−0.12)–0.54 |
Eating at TV weekly | 0.02 | (−0.04)–0.08 | −0.02 | (−0.09)–0.05 | −0.03 | (−0.12)–0.07 |
Frequency of eating out per week | −0.02 | (−0.08)–0.05 | −0.07 | (−0.14)–.01 | 0.11 | 0.01–0.21 |
Elevated waist circumferencea
| Hyper Triglyceridemiab
| HDL-Cc
| Hypertensiond
| Hyperglycemiae
| Metabolic syndromef
| |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Fast food/dessert | ||||||
1st quintile | 1.00 | 1.00 | 1.00 | 1.00 | 1.00 | 1.00 |
3rd quintile | 0.98 (0.47–2.13) | 1.18 (0.52–2.70) | 1.82 (0.82–4.03) | 0.84 (0.38–1.82) | 1.56 (0.70–3.47) | 1.64 (0.75–3.59) |
5th quintile | 1.70 (0.31–2.58) | 2.01 (0.84–4.74) | 1.32 (0.56–3.12) | 1.40 (0.62–3.17) | 3.81 (1.59–9.14) | 3.13 (1.36–7.22) |
p for trend
g
| 0.30 | 0.20 | 0.67 | 0.183 | 0.001 | 0.06 |
Traditional lebanese | ||||||
1st quintile | 1.00 | 1.00 | 1.00 | 1.00 | 1.00 | 1.00 |
3rd quintile | 0.86 (0.41–1.81) | 0.85 (0.38–1.88) | 1.83 (0.82–4.09) | 1.54 (0.69–3.43) | 1.60 (0.74–3.43) | 1.55 (0.70–3.43) |
5th quintile | 1.07 (0.51–2.24) | 1.28 (0.59–2.79) | 1.77 (0.80–3.93) | 2.31 (0.91–6.74) | 1.44 (0.67–3.08) | 1.96 (0.82–4.34) |
p for trend
| 0.83 | 0.42 | 0.32 | <0.001 | 0.31 | 0.10 |
High protein | ||||||
1st quintile | 1.00 | 1.00 | 1.00 | 1.00 | 1.00 | 1.00 |
3rd quintile | 1.76 (0.82–3.83) | 1.21 (0.55–2.64) | 1.18 (0.54–2.57) | 1.99 (0.85–4.63) | 1.13 (0.52–2.46) | 0.90 (0.41–1.99) |
5th quintile | 1.74 (0.79–3.85) | 1.02 (0.46–2.27) | 0.60 (0.30–1.38) | 2.98 (1.26–7.02) | 1.60 (0.70–3.62) | 1.22 (0.54–2.77) |
p for trend
| 0.25 | 0.91 | 0.45 | 0.01 | 0.70 | 0.76 |