Background
Methods
Study area
Study population and selection criteria
Study design and sample size determination
Questionnaire administration
Parasitological screening for S. mansoni
Data analysis
Ethical considerations
Results
Demographic information of the study participants
Characteristic | Karima N (%) | Rurumi N (%) | Kasarani N (%) | Kirogo N (%) | Kamucege N (%) | Block N (%) | Gakungu N (%) | Total |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Sex | ||||||||
Male | 34 (29.8) | 106 (46.1) | 22 (18.1) | 25 (25.0) | 33 (25.8) | 28 (26.7) | 19 (17.8) | 267 (29.5) |
Female | 80 (70.2) | 124 (53.9) | 99 (81.9) | 75 (75.0) | 95 (74.2) | 77 (73.3) | 88 (82.2) | 638 (70.5) |
Age (years) | ||||||||
≤ 25 | 15 (13.2) | 21 (9.1) | 9 (7.4) | 6 (6.0) | 12 (9.4) | 11 (10.5) | 15 (14.0) | 89 (9.8) |
26–35 | 22 (19.3) | 69 (30.0) | 37 (30.6) | 25 (25.0) | 30 (23.4) | 37 (35.2) | 41 (38.8) | 261 (28.8) |
36–45 | 27 (23.7) | 72 (31.3) | 39 (32.2) | 29 (29.0) | 37 (28.9) | 34 (32.4) | 33 (30.9) | 271 (30.0) |
46–55 | 21 (18.4) | 30 (13.0) | 30 (24.8) | 24 (24.0) | 23 (18.0) | 8 (7.6) | 14 (13.1) | 150 (16.6) |
> 55 | 29 (25.4) | 38 (16.6) | 6 (5.0) | 16 (16.0) | 26 (20.3) | 15 (14.3) | 4 (3.7) | 134 (14.8) |
Marital status | ||||||||
Married | 97 (85.1) | 179 (77.8) | 105 (86.8) | 89 (89.0) | 109 (85.2) | 83 (79.0) | 94 (87.9) | 756 (83.5) |
Single/ Window(wer)/ Divorced | 17 (14.9) | 51 (22.2) | 16 (13.2) | 11 (11.0) | 19 (14.8) | 22 (21.0) | 13 (12.1) | 149 (16.5) |
Religion | ||||||||
Christian | 106 (93) | 220 (95.7) | 116 (95.8) | 95 (95.0) | 117 (91.4) | 100 (95.2) | 106 (99.1) | 860 (95.0) |
Others | 8 (7.0) | 10 (4.3) | 5 (4.2) | 5 (5.0) | 11 (8.6) | 5 (4.8) | 1 (0.9) | 45 (5.0) |
Education | ||||||||
No formal education | 20 (17.5) | 12 (5.2) | 5 (4.1) | 7 (7.0) | 16 (12.5) | 10 (9.5) | 2 (1.9) | 72 (7.6) |
Primary (Incomplete) | 31 (27.2) | 72 (31.3) | 38 (31.4) | 26 (26.0) | 42 (32.8) | 37 (35.2) | 35 (32.7) | 280 (20.9) |
Primary (Complete) | 41 (36.0) | 107 (46.5) | 45 (37.2) | 48 (48.0) | 47 (36.8) | 38 (36.2) | 41 (38.3) | 370 (40.9) |
Secondary Incomplete) | 20 (17.5) | 31 (13.5) | 26 (21.5) | 16 (16.0) | 20 (15.6) | 14 (13.3) | 23 (21.5) | 152 (16.8) |
Secondary and post-secondary | 2 (1.8) | 8 (3.5) | 7 (5.8) | 3 (3.0) | 3 (2.3) | 6 (5.8) | 6 (5.6) | 31 (13.8) |
Occupation | ||||||||
Business | 8 (7.0) | 24 (10.4) | 26 (21.5) | 13 (13.0) | 15 (11.7) | 17 (16.2) | 20 (18.7) | 123 (13.6) |
Casual labourers | 9 (7.9) | 47 (20.4) | 18 (14.9) | 10 (10.0) | 19 (14.8) | 20 (19.0) | 23 (21.5) | 146 (16.1) |
Others | 8 (7.0) | 13 (5.7) | 18 (14.9) | 1 (1.0) | 4 (3.2) | 6 (5.8) | 11 (10.3) | 61 (6.7) |
Farmer | 89 (78.1) | 146 (63.5) | 59 (48.7) | 76 (76.0) | 90 (70.3) | 62 (59) | 53 (49.5) | 575 (63.6) |
Household access to improved water and sanitation facilities
Characteristic | Karima N (%) | Rurumi N (%) | Kasarani N (%) | Kirogo N (%) | Kamucege N (%) | Block N (%) | Gakungu N (%) | Total |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Source of water | ||||||||
Piped water | 0 (0) | 7 (3.0) | 19 (15.7) | 9 (9.0) | 0 (0) | 0 (0) | 13 (12.1) | 48 (5.3) |
Borehole | 0 (0) | 0 (0) | 0 (0) | 49 (49.0) | 0 (0) | 0 (0) | 0(0) | 49 (5.4) |
Protected dug well | 0 (0) | 0(0) | 0 (0) | 0 (0) | 0 (0) | 10(9.5) | 6 (4.7) | 6 (0.7) |
Rainwater collection | 2 (1.8) | 21 (9.1) | 2 (1.7) | 1 (1.0) | 0 (0) | 2 (1.9) | 4 (3.7) | 32 (3.5) |
Other sources | 0 (0) | 0 (0) | 5 (4.1) | 0 (0) | 0 (0) | 0 (0) | 0(0) | 5 (0.6) |
Surface water/ unprotected dug well | 112(98.2) | 202 (87.2) | 95 (78.5) | 41 (41.0) | 128 (100) | 103 (98.1) | 84 (78.5) | 765 (84.5) |
Time taken to fetch water | ||||||||
On premises | 0 (0) | 59 (25.7) | 93 (76.9) | 49 (49.0) | 19 (14.8) | 23 (21.9) | 54 (50.5) | 297 (32.8) |
Less than thirty minutes | 111 (97.4) | 147 (63.9) | 28 (23.1) | 51 (51.0) | 109 (85.2) | 82 (78.1) | 50 (46.7) | 578 (63.9) |
More than thirty minutes | 3 (2.6) | 24 (10.4) | 0 (0) | 0 (0) | 0 (0) | 0 (0) | 3 (2.8) | 30 (3.3) |
Sanitation facility | ||||||||
VIP/Simple latrine with floor slab | 98 (86.0) | 149 (64.8) | 104 (85.9) | 91 (91.0) | 87 (68.0) | 60 (57.1) | 89 (83.2) | 678 (74.8) |
Pit latrine without floor slab | 16 (14) | 62 (27.0) | 12 (9.9) | 7 (7.0) | 38 (29.7) | 45 (42.9) | 18 (16.8) | 198 (21.9) |
Other | 0 (0) | 8 (3.5) | 5 (4.2) | 2 (2.0) | 0 (0) | 0 (0) | 0 (0) | 15 (1.7 |
No facility | 0 (0) | 11 (4.7) | 0 (0) | 0 (0) | 3 (2.3) | 0 (0) | 0 (0) | 14 (1.6) |
Reported sanitation access | ||||||||
Shared | 25 (78.1) | 45 (20.5) | 30 (24.8) | 25 (25.0) | 33 (25.8) | 18 (17.1) | 18 (16.8) | 194 (21.7) |
Not shared | 89 (21.9) | 174 (79.5) | 91 (75.2) | 75 (75.0) | 95 (74.2) | 87 (82.9) | 89 (83.2) | 700 (78.3) |
Toilet in use | ||||||||
Yes | 114 (100) | 226 (98.3) | 120 (99.2) | 100 (100) | 0 (0) | 103 (98.1) | 107 (100) | 898 (99.2) |
No | 0 (0) | 4 (1.7) | 1 (0.8) | 0 (0) | 0 (0) | 2 (1.9) | 0 (0) | 7 (0.8) |
Visible faeces on the edges | ||||||||
Yes | 17 (14.9) | 52 (27.4) | 10 (8.3) | 21 (21.0) | 37 (28.9) | 31 (29.5) | 20 (18.7) | 188 (21.0) |
No | 97 (85.1) | 167 (72.6) | 111 (91.7) | 79 (79.0) | 91 (71.1) | 74 (70.5) | 87 (81.3) | 706 (79.0) |
Household has child (ren) under 3 years | ||||||||
Yes | 17 (14.9) | 74 (32.2) | 37 (30.6) | 28 (28.0) | 26 (20.3) | 19 (18.1) | 47 (43.9) | 248 (27.4) |
No | 97 (85.1) | 156 (67.8) | 84 (69.4) | 72 (72.0) | 102(79.7) | 86 (81.9) | 60 (56.1) | 657 (72.6) |
Disposal of feaces for under 3 years | ||||||||
Child used toilet/ latrine | 1 (6.0) | 15 (20.3) | 12 (32.4) | 8 (28.6) | 13 (50) | 13 (68.4) | 16 (30.1) | 78(31.4) |
Other | 16 (94.0) | 55 (74.3) | 24 (64.9) | 17 (60.7) | 12 (46.2) | 0 (0) | 30 (63.8) | 154 (62.1) |
Put/ rinsed in toilet/ latrine | 0 (0) | 4 (5.4) | 1 (0.7) | 3 (10.7) | 1 (3.8) | 6 (31.6) | 1 (6.1) | 16 (6.5) |
Prevalence and intensity of S. mansoni infections
Karima N (%) | Rurumi N (%) | Kasarani N (%) | Kirogo N (%) | Kamucege N (%) | Block N (%) | Gakungu N (%) | Total | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
S. mansoni
| ||||||||
Positive | 21 | 72 | 34 | 7 | 29 | 19 | 27 | 209 |
Negative | 93 | 158 | 87 | 93 | 99 | 86 | 80 | 696 |
Prevalence | 18.4 | 31.3 | 28.1 | 7 | 22.7 | 18.1 | 25.2 | 23.1 |
OR (95% CI) | 0.669(0.351–1.274) | 1.350(0.805–2.266) | 1.158(0.642–2.088) | 0.223(0.092–0.540) | 0.868(0.476–1.584) | 0.655(0.338–1.268) | REF | |
P-value | 0.220 | 0.255 | 0.626 | < 0.001 | 0.644 | 0.207 | ||
Intensity | ||||||||
Light (1–99 epg) | 20 | 46 | 19 | 6 | 24 | 17 | 24 | 156 |
Moderate (100–399 epg) | 1 | 19 | 13 | 1 | 4 | 1 | 2 | 41 |
Heavy (≥400 epg) | 0 | 7 | 2 | 0 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 12 |
Association between S. mansoni infection and demographic variables
Variables |
S. mansoni
| OR (95% CI) | P-value | |
---|---|---|---|---|
Positive | Negative | |||
Sex | ||||
Female | 141(22.1) | 497(77.9) | REF | |
Male | 68(25.5) | 199(74.5) | 1.204(0.863–1.680) | 0.273 |
Total | 209 | 696 | ||
Age (years) | ||||
> 55 | 36(26.1) | 102(73.9) | REF | |
46–55 | 36(24.2) | 113(75.8) | 0.903(0.529–1.540) | 0.707 |
36–45 | 53(19.3) | 221(80.7) | 0.679(0.419–1.102) | 0.116 |
26–35 | 69(25.7) | 199(74.3) | 0.982(0.615–1.569) | 0.941 |
≤ 25 | 15(19.7) | 61(80.3) | 0.697(0.353–1.376) | 0.297 |
Total | 209 | 696 | ||
Marital status | ||||
Single/Widow(er)/Divorced | 66(22.5) | 227(77.5) | REF | |
Married | 143(23.4) | 469(76.6) | 1.049(0.752–1.462) | 0.779 |
Total | 209 | 696 | ||
Religion | ||||
Others | 6(13.6) | 38(86.4) | REF | |
Christian | 203(23.6) | 658(76.4) | 1.954(0.814–4.688) | 0.127 |
Total | 209 | 696 | ||
Education | ||||
Secondary & Post-secondary | 8(25.8) | 23(74.2) | REF | |
Secondary (Incomplete) | 28(18.7) | 122(81.3) | 0.660(0.267–1.628) | 0.365 |
Primary (Complete) | 82(22.0) | 291(78.0) | 0.810(0.349–1.878) | 0.623 |
Primary (Incomplete) | 78(27.9) | 202(72.1) | 1.110(0.476–2.587) | 0.809 |
No formal education | 13(18.3) | 58(81.7) | 0.644(0.236–1.759) | 0.389 |
Total | 209 | 696 | ||
Occupation | ||||
Farmer | 50(8.7) | 522(91.3) | REF | |
Business person | 64(52.0) | 59(48.0) | 1.248(0.845–1.843) | 0.265 |
Casual labourer | 68(43.3) | 89(56.7) | 0.879(0.616–1.255) | 0.477 |
Others | 27(50.9) | 26(49.1) | 1.195(0.680–2.098) | 0.535 |
Total | 209 | 696 | ||
Village | ||||
Gakungu | 27(25.2) | 80(74.8) | REF | |
Karima | 21(18.4) | 93(81.6) | 0.669(0.351–1.274) | 0.220 |
Rurumi | 72(31.3) | 158(68.7) | 1.350(0.805–2.266) | 0.255 |
Kasarani | 34(28.1) | 87(71.9) | 1.158(0.642–2.088) | 0.626 |
Kirogo | 7(7.0) | 93(93.0) | 0.223(0.092–0.540) | < 0.001 |
Kamucege | 29(22.7) | 99(77.3) | 0.868(0.476–1.584) | 0.644 |
Block | 19(18.1) | 86(81.9) | 0.655(0.338–1.268) | 0.207 |
Total | 209 | 696 |
Association between S. mansoni infections, water and sanitation variables
Variables |
S. mansoni
| OR (95% CI) | P-value | |
---|---|---|---|---|
Positive | Negative | |||
Source of water in the household | ||||
Unprotected dug well/Surface water | 180(23.5) | 585(76.5) | REF | |
Piped | 6(12.5) | 42(87.5) | 0.464(0.194–1.110) | 0.078 |
Borehole | 7(14.3) | 42(85.7) | 0.542(0.239–1.227) | 0.136 |
Protected dug well | 3(50.0) | 3(50.0) | 3.250(0.650–16.243) | 0.149 |
Rainwater collection | 10(31.3) | 22(68.8) | 1.477(0.687–3.178) | 0.315 |
Other | 3(60.0) | 2(40.0) | 4.875(0.808–29.403) | 0.056 |
Total | 209 | 696 | ||
Time taken to fetch water from the source | ||||
More than 30 min | 16(26.2) | 45(73.8) | REF | |
On premises | 64(22.4) | 222(77.6) | 1.112(0.463–2.672) | 0.812 |
Less than 30 min | 129(23.1) | 429(76.9) | 1.160(0.494–2.725) | 0.733 |
Total | 209 | 696 | ||
Satisfied with the water supply (source) | ||||
Not satisfied | 136(26.7) | 374(73.3) | REF | |
Satisfied | 73(18.5) | 322 (81.5) | 0.623 (0.452–0.859) | 0.004 |
Total | 209 | 696 | ||
Drinking water classification | ||||
Un improved | 182(23.7) | 585(76.3) | REF | |
Improved | 27(19.6) | 111(80.4) | 0.782(0.497–1.229) | 0.285 |
Total | 209 | 696 | ||
Toilet/Sanitation facility type | ||||
No facility | 1(7.1) | 13(92.9) | REF | |
VIP/simple pit latrine with floor/slab | 148(21.8) | 530(78.2) | 1.755(0.210–14.693) | 0.507 |
Pit latrine without floor/slab | 46(23.2) | 152(76.8) | 1.852(0.217–15.786) | 0.999 |
Other | 14(93.3) | 1(6.7) | 2.400(0.264–21.787) | 0.661 |
Total | 209 | 696 | ||
Toilet shared with other households | ||||
Not shared | 154(22.2) | 540(77.8) | REF | |
Shared | 54(27.4) | 143(72.6) | 1.149(0.791–1.668) | 0.466 |
Total | 208 | 683 | ||
Toilet in use | ||||
No | 6(66.7) | 3(33.3) | REF | |
Yes | 202 (22.9) | 680(77.1) | 0.400(0.089–1.802) | 0.207 |
Total | 208 | 683 | ||
Presence of faeces on the floor | ||||
No | 163(23.2) | 541(76.8) | REF | |
Yes | 45(24.1) | 142(75.9) | 1.069(0.730–1.564) | 0.732 |
Total | 208 | 683 | ||
Household has child(ren) under 3 years | ||||
No | 161(22.4) | 558(77.6) | REF | |
Yes | 48(25.4) | 138(74.6) | 1.195(0.820–1.742) | 0.353 |
Total | 209 | 696 | ||
Disposal of faeces for children < 3 years | ||||
Put/rinsed into toilet or latrine | 42(25.0) | 124(75.0) | REF | |
Child used toilet/latrine | 3(33.3) | 6(66.7) | 1.500(0.359–6.270) | 0.695 |
Other | 3(27.3) | 8(72.7) | 1.125(0.285–4.441) | 0.999 |
Total | 48 | 138 | ||
Sanitation facility type | ||||
Un-improved | 61(26.9) | 166(73.1) | REF | |
Improved | 148(21.8) | 530(78.2) | 1.018(0.705–1.469) | 0.926 |
Total | 209 | 696 |