Background
Methods
Participants
Data collection
Exposure assessment
Variable | FFQ items included | Individual foods included |
---|---|---|
All fruits | Citrus fruits, other fruits | (See listing below) |
Citrus fruits | Oranges, orange juice | Oranges, grapefruit, and tangerines; 100% orange juice and grapefruit juice |
Other fruits | Apples, bananas, peaches, apricots, dried fruit, berries, melons, other fruits, 100% fruit juice | Apples, apple sauce, and pears; bananas; peaches, nectarines, and plums; apricots (fresh or canned); dried fruit (other than apricots) such as raisins or prunes; berries such as strawberries and blueberries; cantaloupe, other melons, and mango; any other fruit such as fruit cocktail, pineapples, and cherries; other 100% fruit juice |
All vegetables | Dark green, red/orange, starchy, cruciferous, beans/bean dishes, other vegetables | (See listing below) |
Dark green | Salad, greens | Green salad (lettuce or spinach); cooked greens such as spinach, mustard greens, or collards |
Red/orange | Salsa, tomatoes, carrots, winter squash, tomato juice | Salsa (as in dip or foods); fresh tomatoes; carrots; winter squash such as acorn or butternut, sweet potatoes and yams; tomato juice, V-8, and other vegetable juice |
Starchy | Peas, boiled potatoes, corn | Green peas; potatoes (boiled, baked, or mashed); corn |
Cruciferous | Broccoli, cauliflower | Broccoli; cauliflower, cabbage, and Brussels sprouts |
Beans/bean dishes | Beans, bean soups | Beans such as baked, refried, and chili without meat; bean soups such as pea, lentil, and black bean |
Other vegetables | Peppers, green beans, summer squash, onions, garlic, avocado | Green and red peppers and chilies; green or string beans; summer squash, zucchini, and okra; onions and leeks; fresh garlic including in cooking; avocado and guacamole |
Protein sources | ||
Fish | Tuna, shell fish, white fish, dark fish | Canned tuna, tuna salad, tuna casserole; shellfish, not fried (shrimp, lobster, crab, and oysters; white fish (broiled or baked) such as sole, halibut, and cod; dark fish (broiled or baked) such as tuna or salmon |
Poultry | Chicken liver, roasted chicken | Liver, chicken liver, and organ meats; chicken and turkey (roasted, stewed, or broiled) |
Red meat | Beef, ground meat | Beef, pork, ham, and lamb; ground meat including hamburgers and meatloaf |
Processed meat | Bacon, low or reduced fat hot dog, regular hot dog, lunch meats, other lunch meats | Bacon and breakfast sausage; low or reduced fat hot dogs and sausage; lunch meats such as ham, turkey, and low fat bologna; all other lunch meat such as bologna, salami, and Spam |
Other protein | Peanut butter, tofu, eggs | Peanut butter, peanuts, and other nuts and seeds; tofu, tempeh, and products such as tofu hot dogs, soy burgers, and tofu cheese; eggs |
Other foods | ||
Dairy | Cottage and ricotta cheese, low or reduced fat cheese, all other cheese, yogurt, milk, soymilk, rice milk, milk added to cereal | Cottage cheese and ricotta cheese; low or reduced fat cheese, including cheese used in cooking; all other cheeses, such as American, cheddar, or cream cheese, including cheese used in cooking; yogurt, all types, except for frozen; milk as a beverage; soy milk; rice milk |
Grains | Cold cereal, cooked cereal, pancakes, muffins, white bread, granola bar, sports or meal replacement bar, low or nonfat chips, regular chips, low or nonfat crackers, regular crackers, grains | Cold cereal; cooked cereals and grits; pancakes, French toast, and waffles; muffins, scones, croissants, and biscuits; white breads including bagels, rolls, and English muffins; granola bars and cereal bars such as NutriGrain Bars; sports or meal replacement bars such as Power Bars and Cliff Bars; low or nonfat potato and tortilla chips, pretzels, and plain or low fat microwave popcorn; regular potato and tortilla chips, puffs, and microwave or buttered popcorn; low or nonfat crackers such as saltines and SnackWell’s; regular crackers such as Ritz and Wheat Thins; rice noodles and other grains (as side dish) |
Sweets | Jam, donuts, ice cream, frozen yogurt, pudding, cookies and cakes, chocolate and candy, cranberry juice, fruit drinks, soft drinks | Jam, jelly, honey, and syrup; ice cream and milk shakes; low or nonfat frozen desserts such as low fat ice cream, frozen yogurt, and sherbet; pudding, custard, and flan; donuts, pies, and pastries; cookies and cakes; chocolate, candy bars, and toffee; cranberry juice and other fruit juice cocktails; fruit drinks fortified with vitamin C, such as Hi-C; regular soft drinks |
Fried foods | Fried potatoes, fried fish, fried chicken | French fries, fried potatoes, and hash browns; fried fish, fish sandwich and fried shellfish (shrimp, oysters); fried chicken including chicken nuggets and tenders |
Added fats | Butter on bread, butter added to dishes, mayonnaise, salad dressing, gravy | Butter or margarine on breads, hot cereals, pancakes, etc.; butter, margarine, sour cream, and other fat added to vegetables, potatoes, and rice; mayonnaise and mayonnaise-type spreads; salad dressing (all types); meat gravies |
Alcohol | Beer, red wine, white wine, liquor | Beer (all types); red wine; white or rose wine; liquor and mixed drinks |
Outcome assessment
Statistical analysis
Results
Total | < 10%a | 10–30%a | > 30%a | p valueb | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Characteristic (mean ± SD) | 281 (31.2) | 306 (34.0) | 313 (34.8) | ||
Age at baseline (years) (52.0 ± 9.7)c | 0.003 | ||||
< 40 | 93 (10.3) | 33 (11.7) | 43 (14.1) | 17 (5.4) | |
40–49 | 275 (30.6) | 97 (34.5) | 87 (28.5) | 91 (29.1) | |
50–59 | 323 (35.9) | 92 (32.7) | 109 (35.7) | 122 (39.0) | |
≥ 60 | 208 (23.1) | 59 (21.0) | 66 (21.6) | 83 (26.5) | |
Race/ethnicity | 0.98 | ||||
Non-Hispanic White | 762 (84.7) | 238 (84.7) | 259 (84.6) | 265 (84.7) | |
Spanish/Latino/Hispanic | 27 (3.0) | 7 (2.5) | 9 (2.9) | 11 (3.5) | |
Black/African American | 56 (6.2) | 19 (6.8) | 20 (6.5) | 17 (5.4) | |
Other | 55 (6.1) | 17 (6.1) | 18 (5.9) | 20 (6.4) | |
BMI at baseline (kg/m2)c (28.7 ± 6.5) | 0.03 | ||||
Underweight (< 18.5) | 8 (0.9) | 6 (2.2) | 1 (0.3) | 1 (0.3) | |
Normal/underweight (18.5–24.9) | 278 (31.3) | 103 (37.1) | 103 (34.1) | 72 (23.3) | |
Overweight (25.0–29.9) | 287 (32.3) | 84 (30.22) | 85 (28.2) | 118 (38.2) | |
Obese (30.0+) | 316 (35.6) | 85 (30.6) | 113 (37.4) | 118 (38.2) | |
BMI at follow-up (kg/m2)c (28.5 ± 6.4) | 0.16 | ||||
Underweight (< 18.5) | 8 (0.9) | 4 (1.4) | 2 (0.7) | 2 (0.7) | |
Normal (18.5–24.9) | 281 (31.7) | 103 (37.2) | 99 (33.0) | 79 (25.6) | |
Overweight (25.0–29.9) | 304 (34.3) | 93 (33.6) | 88 (29.3) | 123 (39.8) | |
Obese (30.0+) | 293 (33.1) | 77 (27.8) | 111 (37.0) | 105 (34.0) | |
Change in weight during treatment | 0.007 | ||||
Lost weight | 56 (6.2) | 8 (2.9) | 15 (4.9) | 33 (10.5) | |
Did not change | 772 (85.8) | 256 (91.1) | 263 (86.0) | 253 (80.8) | |
Gained weight | 72 (8.0) | 17 (6.1) | 28 (9.2) | 27 (8.6) | |
Menopausal status | 0.009 | ||||
Pre | 407 (45.2) | 135 (48.0) | 152 (49.7) | 120 (38.3) | |
Post | 493 (54.8) | 146 (52.0) | 154 (50.3) | 193 (61.7) | |
Smoking status | 0.09 | ||||
Never | 511 (57.0) | 169 (60.4) | 182 (59.7) | 160 (51.3) | |
Former | 285 (31.8) | 84 (30.0) | 94 (30.8) | 107 (34.3) | |
Current | 101 (11.3) | 27 (9.6) | 29 (9.5) | 45 (14.4) | |
Highest education | 0.21 | ||||
Did not complete high school | 51 (5.7) | 22 (7.9) | 11 (3.6) | 18 (5.8) | |
High school | 188 (21.0) | 54 (19.4) | 63 (20.7) | 71 (22.7) | |
Some college or technical school | 325 (36.3) | 97 (34.8) | 105 (34.5) | 123 (39.3) | |
College graduate | 196 (21.9) | 64 (22.9) | 70 (23.0) | 62 (19.8) | |
Advanced degree | 136 (15.2) | 42 (15.1) | 55 (18.1) | 39 (12.5) | |
Marital status | 0.80 | ||||
Married/living as married | 682 (76.2) | 216 (77.1) | 232 (76.6) | 234 (75.0) | |
Widowed | 38 (4.3) | 15 (5.4) | 9 (3.0) | 14 (4.5) | |
Divorced/separated | 127 (14.2) | 35 (12.5) | 45 (14.9) | 47 (15.1) | |
Single/never married | 48 (5.4) | 14 (5.0) | 17 (5.6) | 17 (5.5) |
Food group | Total | < 10%a | 10–30%b | > 30%b | p value c |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
All fruits | 0.81 | ||||
≤ 30.8 | 300 (33.3) | 96 (34.2) | 100 (32.7) | 104 (33.2) | |
30.9–69.5 | 303 (33.7) | 88 (31.3) | 103 (33.7) | 112 (35.8) | |
> 69.5 | 297 (33.0) | 97 (34.5) | 103 (33.7) | 97 (31.0) | |
Citrus fruits | 0.38 | ||||
≤ 2.5 | 308 (34.2) | 100 (35.6) | 109 (35.6) | 99 (31.6) | |
2.6–14.5 | 311 (34.6) | 101 (35.9) | 94 (30.7) | 116 (37.1) | |
> 14.5 | 281 (31.2) | 80 (28.5) | 103 (33.7) | 98 (31.3) | |
Other fruits | 0.74 | ||||
≤ 22.8 | 300 (33.3) | 91 (32.4) | 97 (31.7) | 112 (35.8) | |
22.9–53.0 | 300 (33.3) | 94 (33.5) | 109 (35.6) | 97 (31.0) | |
> 53.0 | 300 (33.3) | 96 (34.2) | 100 (32.7) | 104 (33.2) | |
All vegetables | 0.57 | ||||
≤ 39.8 | 302 (33.6) | 93 (33.1) | 99 (32.4) | 110 (35.1) | |
39.9–76.0 | 300 (33.3) | 103 (36.7) | 100 (32.7) | 97 (31.0) | |
> 76.0 | 298 (33.1) | 85 (30.3) | 107 (35.0) | 106 (33.9) | |
Dark green | 0.14 | ||||
≤3.8 | 276 (30.7) | 85 (30.3) | 88 (28.8) | 103 (32.9) | |
3.9–12.0 | 333 (37.0) | 103 (36.7) | 105 (34.3) | 125 (39.9) | |
> 12.0 | 291 (32.33) | 93 (33.1) | 113 (36.9) | 85 (27.2) | |
Red/orange | 0.49 | ||||
≤ 8.0 | 316 (35.1) | 97 (34.5) | 99 (32.4) | 120 (38.3) | |
8.1–20.5 | 291 (32.3) | 97 (34.5) | 100 (32.7) | 94 (30.0) | |
> 20.5 | 293 (32.6) | 87 (31.0) | 107 (35.0) | 99 (31.6) | |
Starchy | 0.36 | ||||
≤ 5.3 | 306 (34.0) | 88 (31.3) | 100 (32.7) | 118 (37.7) | |
5.4–11.0 | 299 (33.2) | 102 (36.3) | 105 (34.3) | 92 (29.4) | |
> 11.0 | 295 (32.8) | 91 (32.4) | 101 (33.0) | 103 (32.9) | |
Cruciferous | 0.79 | ||||
≤ 2.5 | 334 (37.1) | 97 (34.5) | 119 (38.9) | 118 (37.7) | |
2.6–6.5 | 275 (30.6) | 93 (33.1) | 89 (29.1) | 93 (29.7) | |
> 6.5 | 291 (32.3) | 91 (32.4) | 98 (32.0) | 102 (32.6) | |
Beans/bean dishes | 0.74 | ||||
≤ 0.5 | 336 (37.3) | 105 (37.4) | 106 (34.6) | 125 (39.9) | |
0.6–2.5 | 284 (31.6) | 89 (31.7) | 99 (32.4) | 96 (30.7) | |
> 2.5 | 280 (31.1) | 87 (31.0) | 101 (33.0) | 92 (29.4) | |
Other vegetables | 0.34 | ||||
≤ 8.0 | 301 (33.4) | 98 (34.9) | 93 (30.4) | 110 (35.1) | |
8.1–20.5 | 305 (33.9) | 97 (34.5) | 114 (37.3) | 94 (30.0) | |
> 20.5 | 294 (32.7) | 86 (30.6) | 99 (32.4) | 109 (34.8) |
Food group | Total | < 10%a | 10–30%b | > 30%b | p valuec |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Protein | |||||
Fish | 0.98 | ||||
≤ 1.5 | 320 (35.6) | 101 (35.9) | 110 (36.0) | 109 (34.8) | |
1.6–5.0 | 287 (31.9) | 91 (32.4) | 98 (32.0) | 98 (31.3) | |
> 5.0 | 293 (32.6) | 89 (31.7) | 98 (32.0) | 106 (33.9) | |
Poultry | 0.90 | ||||
≤ 2.0 | 306 (34.0) | 93 (33.1) | 104 (34.0) | 109 (34.8) | |
2.1–4.0 | 296 (32.9) | 89 (31.7) | 105 (34.3) | 102 (32.6) | |
> 4.0 | 298 (33.1) | 99 (35.2) | 97 (31.7) | 102 (32.6) | |
Red meats | 0.98 | ||||
≤ 5.0 | 319 (35.4) | 97 (34.5) | 111 (36.3) | 111 (35.5) | |
5.1–12.0 | 281 (31.2) | 91 (32.3) | 92 (30.1) | 98 (31.3) | |
> 12.0 | 300 (33.3) | 93 (33.1) | 103 (33.7) | 104 (33.2) | |
Processed meat | 0.87 | ||||
≤ 3.3 | 306 (34.0) | 95 (33.8) | 102 (33.3) | 109 (34.8) | |
3.4–8.8 | 294 (32.7) | 89 (31.7) | 107 (35.0) | 98 (31.3) | |
> 8.8 | 300 (33.3) | 97 (34.5) | 97 (31.7) | 106 (33.9) | |
Other proteins | 0.47 | ||||
≤ 6.0 | 311 (34.6) | 97 (34.5) | 98 (32.0) | 116 (37.1) | |
6.1–15.3 | 296 (32.9) | 85 (30.3) | 107 (35.0) | 104 (33.3) | |
> 15.3 | 293 (32.6) | 99 (35.2) | 101 (33.0) | 93 (29.7) | |
Other foods | |||||
Dairy | 0.31 | ||||
≤ 16.3 | 300 (33.3) | 89 (31.7) | 99 (32.4) | 112 (35.8) | |
16.3–39.5 | 300 (33.3) | 87 (31.0) | 113 (36.9) | 100 (32.0) | |
> 39.5 | 300 (33.3) | 105 (37.4) | 94 (30.7) | 101 (32.3) | |
Grains | 0.01 | ||||
≤ 27.5 | 301 (33.4) | 78 (27.8) | 97 (31.7) | 126 (40.3) | |
27.6–48.5 | 299 (33.2) | 93 (33.1) | 109 (35.6) | 97 (31.0) | |
> 48.5 | 300 (33.3) | 110 (39.2) | 100 (32.7) | 90 (28.8) | |
Sweets | 0.31 | ||||
≤ 15.5 | 305 (33.9) | 96 (34.2) | 93 (30.4) | 116 (37.1) | |
15.6–35.0 | 296 (32.9) | 98 (34.9) | 99 (32.4) | 99 (31.6) | |
> 35.0 | 299 (33.2) | 87 (30.96) | 114 (37.3) | 98 (31.3) | |
Fried foods | 0.47 | ||||
≤ 2.0 | 309 (34.3) | 86 (30.6) | 112 (36.6) | 111 (35.5) | |
2.1–5.3 | 302 (33.6) | 105 (37.4) | 97 (31.7) | 100 (32.0) | |
> 5.3 | 289 (32.1) | 90 (32.0) | 97 (31.7) | 102 (32.6) | |
Added fats | 0.41 | ||||
≤ 17.3 | 303 (33.7) | 89 (31.7) | 98 (32.0) | 116 (37.1) | |
17.3–34.0 | 299 (33.2) | 103 (36.7) | 101 (33.0) | 95 (30.4) | |
> 34.0 | 298 (33.1) | 89 (31.7) | 107 (35.0) | 102 (32.6) | |
Alcohol | 0.009 | ||||
0.0 | 531 (59.0) | 163 (58.0) | 170 (55.6) | 198 (63.3) | |
0.1–2.0 | 191 (21.2) | 58 (20.6) | 84 (27.5) | 49 (15.7) | |
> 2.0 | 178 (19.8) | 60 (21.4) | 52 (17.0) | 66 (21.1) |