Introduction
Methods
Literature search
Analysis
Results
Publication trends and affected species
Common name | Scientific name | IUCN category | Population trend | Continental region | Reference |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
New World
| |||||
Turquoise-fronted Amazon |
Amazona aestiva
| LC | Decreasing | South America | |
White-fronted Amazon |
Amazona albifrons
| LC | Increasing | North and Central America | |
Orange-winged Amazon |
Amazona amazonica
| LC | Decreasing | South America | [36] |
Yellow-naped Amazon |
Amazona auropalliata
| VU | Decreasing | Central and South America | |
Red-lored Amazon |
Amazona autumnalis
| LC | Decreasing | North, Central and South America | |
Vinaceous-breasted Amazon |
Amazona vinacea
| EN | Decreasing | South America | [80] |
Blue-and-yellow macaw |
Ara ararauna
| LC | Decreasing | South America | [80] |
Red-and-green macaw |
Ara chloropterus
| LC | Decreasing | South America | [20] |
Scarlet macaw |
Ara macao
| LC | Decreasing | South and Central America | |
Military macaw |
Ara militaris
| VU | Decreasing | North and South America | [79] |
Red-fronted macaw |
Ara rubrogenys
| EN | Decreasing | South America | [80] |
Sun parakeet |
Aratinga solstitialis
| EN | Decreasing | South America | [79] |
Pacific parrotlet |
Forpus coelestis
| LC | Stable | South America | [36] |
Golden parakeet |
Guarouba guarouba
| VU | Decreasing | South America | [80] |
Green-thighed parrot |
Pionites leucogaster
| EN | Decreasing | South America | |
Black-headed parrot |
Pionites melanocephalus
| LC | Stable | South America | [20] |
Bronze-winged parrot |
Pionus chalcopterus
| LC | Decreasing | South America | [80] |
Crimson-fronted parakeet |
Psittacara finschi
| LC | Increasing | Central America | [59] |
Old World
| |||||
Nyasa lovebird |
Agapornis lilianae
| NT | Decreasing | East Africa | |
Black-cheeked lovebird |
Agapornis nigrigenis*
| VU | Decreasing | East Africa | |
Peach-faced lovebird |
Agapornis roseicollis
| LC | Decreasing | Southern and Central Africa | |
Australian king parrot |
Alisterus scapularis
| LC | Decreasing | Oceania | [36] |
Red-winged parrot |
Aprosmictus erythropterus
| LC | Increasing | Oceania and South East Asia | [36] |
Australian ringneck |
Barnardius zonarius (barnardi)*
| LC | Increasing | Oceania | |
White cockatoo |
Cacatua alba
| EN | Decreasing | South East Asia | |
Solomon’s corella |
Cacatua ducorpsii
| LC | Stable | Oceania | |
Sulphur-crested cockatoo |
Cacatua galerita*
| LC | Decreasing | Oceania and South East Asia | |
Triton cockatoo |
Cacatua galerita triton
| Not assessed | Oceania | ||
Tanimbar corella |
Cacatua goffiniana
| NT | Decreasing | South East Asia | |
Philippine cockatoo |
Cacatua haematuropygia
| CE | Decreasing | South East Asia | |
Major Mitchell’s cockatoo |
Cacatua leadbeateri
| LC | Stable | Oceania | |
Moluccan cockatoo |
Cacatua moluccensis
| VU | Decreasing | South East Asia | |
Blue-eyed cockatoo |
Cacatua ophthalmica
| VU | Decreasing | Oceania | [80] |
Bare-eyed corella |
Cacatua sanguinea*
| LC | Increasing | Oceania and South East Asia | [92] |
Yellow-crested cockatoo |
Cacatua sulphurea
| CE | Decreasing | South East Asia | |
Citron-crested cockatoo |
Cacatua sulphurea citrinocristata
| Not assessed | South East Asia | ||
Eastern long-billed corella |
Cacatua tenuirostris*
| LC | Increasing | Oceania | |
Gang gang cockatoo |
Callocephalon fimbriatum*
| LC | Increasing | Oceania | |
Red-tailed black cockatoo |
Calyptorhynchus banksii*
| LC | Decreasing | Oceania | [93] |
Glossy black cockatoo |
Calyptorhynchus lathami
| LC | Decreasing | Oceania | [93] |
Vasa parrot |
Coracopsis vasa
| LC | Stable | East Africa | |
Yellow-fronted parakeet |
Cyanoramphus auriceps*
| NT | Decreasing | Oceania | [46] |
Red-fronted parakeet |
Cyanoramphus novaezelandiae (saisseti)*
| NT | Decreasing | Oceania | |
Antipodes parakeet |
Cyanoramphus unicolor
| VU | Stable | Oceania | [42] |
Eclectus parrot |
Eclectus roratus
| LC | Decreasing | Oceania and South East Asia | |
Galah |
Eolophus roseicapilla*
| LC | Increasing | Oceania | |
Red lory |
Eos bornea*
| LC | Decreasing | South East Asia | [96] |
Horned parakeet |
Eunymphicus cornutus
| VU | Increasing | Oceania | [97] |
Musk lorikeet |
Glossopsitta concinna
| LC | Stable | Oceania | [65] |
Purple-crowned lorikeet |
Glossopsitta porphyrocephala
| LC | Decreasing | Oceania | [66] |
Swift parrot |
Lathamus discolor*
| EN | Decreasing | Oceania | |
Budgerigar |
Melopsittacus undulatus
| LC | Increasing | Oceania | |
Orange-bellied parrot |
Neophema chrysogaster*
| CE | Decreasing | Oceania | |
Kea |
Nestor notabilis
| VU | Decreasing | Oceania | [80] |
Bluebonnet |
Northiella haematogaster
| LC | Decreasing | Oceania | |
Cockatiel |
Nymphicus hollandicus
| LC | Stable | Oceania | |
Crimson rosella |
Platycercus elegans*
| LC | Decreasing | Oceania | |
Adelaide rosella |
Platycercus elegans adelaidae*
| Not assessed | Oceania | [54] | |
Yellow rosella |
Platycercus elegans flaveoulus*
| Not assessed | Oceania | [54] | |
Eastern rosella |
Platycercus eximius*
| LC | Increasing | Oceania | |
Brown-headed parrot |
Poicephalus cryptoxanthus
| LC | Stable | Southern and East Africa | |
Red-fronted parrot |
Poicephalus gulielmi
| LC | Decreasing | West, Central and East Africa | |
Cape parrot |
Poicephalus robustus*
| LC | Decreasing | West, Central, East and Southern Africa | |
Rüppell’s parrot |
Poicephalus rueppellii
| LC | Decreasing | Southern and Central Africa | |
Red-bellied parrot |
Poicephalus rufiventris
| LC | Stable | East Africa | |
Senegal parrot |
Poicephalus senegalus
| LC | Stable | West Africa | |
Regent parrot |
Polytelis anthopeplus*
| LC | Decreasing | Oceania | |
Palm cockatoo |
Probosciger aterrimus
| LC | Decreasing | Oceania and South East Asia | |
Red-rumped parrot |
Psephotus haematonotus
| LC | Increasing | Oceania | [95] |
Red-breasted parakeet |
Psittacula alexandri
| NT | Decreasing | South East and South Central Asia | [80] |
Echo parakeet |
Psittacula echo*
| EN | Increasing | East Africa | [30] |
Alexandrine parakeet |
Psittacula eupatria
| NT | Decreasing | South East and South Central Asia | |
Rose-ringed parakeet |
Psittacula krameri*
| LC | Increasing | West, Central, East Africa; South Central Asia | |
Edwards’ fig-parrot |
Psittaculirostris edwardsii
| LC | Stable | Oceania | [80] |
African grey parrot |
Psittacus erithacus
| VU | Decreasing | West, Central and East Africa | |
Timneh parrot |
Psittacus timneh
| VU | Decreasing | West Africa | |
Scaly-breasted lorikeet |
Trichoglossus chlorolepidotus
| LC | Stable | Oceania | [80] |
Olive-headed lorikeet |
Trichoglossus euteles
| LC | Stable | South East Asia | [80] |
Scarlet-breasted lorikeet |
Trichoglossus forsteni
| NT | Decreasing | South East Asia | [80] |
Rainbow lorikeet |
Trichoglossus haematodus*
| LC | Decreasing | Oceania and South East Asia | |
Deplanche’s rainbow lorikeet |
Trichoglossus haematodus deplanchii*
| Not assessed | Oceania | [95] | |
Red-collared lorikeet |
Trichoglossus rubritorquis
| LC | Decreasing | Oceania | |
Yellow-tailed black-cockatoo |
Zanda funerea
| LC | Stable | Oceania | [109] |
Population location | Test prevalence | Methods used | Reference |
---|---|---|---|
Captive
| |||
Germany | 39.2 % from 32 captive breeding facilities | PCR | [110] |
Australia | 23 % (PCR)/66.7 % (HA) of samples submitted by veterinarians | PCR, HA, HI | [65] |
Italy | 8.05 % for entire national captive population | PCR | [43] |
Taiwan | 41.2 % of birds submitted by private owners | PCR | [111] |
New Zealand | <7 % cumulative parakeet species | PCR, Histology | [42] |
Poland | 25.3 % for entire national captive population; 22.12 % - small aviaries; 25.23 % - medium aviaries; 25.99 % - large aviaries | PCR | [112] |
Costa Rica | 19.7 % for entire national captive population | PCR | [59] |
Japan | 31.3 % of imported birds for breeding | PCR | [58] |
Poland | 20.6 % across 50 captive breeding facilities | PCR, Whole-genome sequencing | [36] |
Wild
| |||
Australia |
Cacatua galerita - 10 - 20 % (200 - 1000 individuals) over 4 years | Histology | [44] |
New Zealand |
Platycercus eximius - 8.6-20.4 %, Cacatua galerita - 22-33 % | PCR, Histology | [45] |
New Zealand | 4–7 % across all native species | PCR, Histology | [42] |
New Zealand |
Cyanoramphus novaezalandiae - 28 % | PCR | [47] |
New Zealand |
Cyanoramphus novaezalandiae - 10.5 % (95 % CI: 6.1 %–16.4 %); Cyanoramphus auriceps - 26.7 % (95 % CI 12.3 %–45.9 %); Platycercus eximius - 22.9 % (95 % CI 9.9 %–42.3 %) | PCR, Whole-genome sequencing | [46] |
Mauritius |
Psittacula echo - 2004/05 - 38 %; 2005/06 - 41 %; 2006/07 - 11 %; 2007/08 - 25 %; 2008/09 - 17 % | PCR | [30] |
New Caledonia |
Trichoglossus haematodus deplanchii - 25 % (11-45 %) | PCR, Whole-genome sequencing | [40] |
Australia |
Platycercus elegans - 45-50 %; Platycercus elegans adelaidae - 95-100 %; Platycercus elegans flaveoulus - 18-22 %, WS hybrids - 8-10 % | qPCR, HI | [54] |
Most frequently used laboratory methods
Method | Description | Times used | Example references |
---|---|---|---|
Blocking ELISA | A blocking ELISA is a method used to immobilize biomolecules, primarily proteins, to a plate via passive or covalent interactions, minimising nonspecific binding to the surface by saturating unoccupied binding sites with a blocking reagent | 1 | [109] |
DNA in situ hybridization | DNA in situ hybridization is a technique used in the localisation of specific nucleic acid targets within fixed tissues and cells using an oligonucleotide probe before microscopically visualizing the results | 4 | |
Dot-blot DNA hybridization | Dot blot hybridization is a technique used to determine the abundance of certain DNA in an extraction dotted onto a membrane through hybridization with universal and specific oligonucleotide probes | 2 | |
Duplex shuttle PCR | Duplex shuttle PCR is a process that allows the co-amplification of separate regions of a gene in a single PCR reaction using different pairs of primers in the same reaction mixture | 1 | [51] |
Endocrinological response | Endocrinological response is a method used to challenge the host immune system with a hormone that encourages the production and release of a stress hormone to evaluate whether any differences exist between healthy and infected individuals | 1 | [87] |
Haemagglutination assay | Haemagglutination assay (HA) is a method used to quantify the amount of virus attached to molecules on the surface of host red blood cells in a series of dilutions of a viral suspension | 12 | |
Haemagglutination inhibition | A modified version of the HA where a standard amount of virus and host blood cells are used with the addition of a serially diluted antiserum to determine which concentration inhibits agglutination of the cells | 12 | |
Haematology | Haematology is the study of the morphology and physiology of blood and, in this context, relates to the diagnosis and monitoring of pathogens present in the blood stream | 3 | |
Histology | Histology is the microscopic examination of stained tissues and is applied in the screening for BFDV to determine if viral inclusion bodies are present. Techniques include light and electron microscopy | 28 | |
Immunohistochemical tests | Immunohistochemistry (IHC) is a technique used to observe the physical characteristics of antibodies and their concentration and distribution within host tissue. In screening for BFDV, specimens are stained using the avidin-biotin complex (ABC) immunoperoxidase technique and then exposed to a primary antibody | 5 | |
Quantitative (real-time) PCR | Quantitative (or real-time) polymerase chain reaction (qPCR) is a technique used to both amplify and quantify target DNA through the use of either nonspecific fluorescent dyes that intercalate with double-stranded DNA or a sequence-specific fluorescent probe that hybridizes with the target | 6 | |
Standard PCR | Polymerase chain reaction (PCR) is a technology used to amplify a piece of DNA across several orders of magnitude through a process of thermal cycling in combination with oligonucleotide probes synthesised to bind to the target region and a DNA polymerase enzyme | 41 | |
Virus purification | Virus purification allows the careful study of viral synthesis within cells by combining ultracentrifugation, adsorption chromatography, electrophoresis, and partition in liquid phases to separate virions from incomplete protein fragments and cell debris | 3 | |
Whole-genome sequencing | Whole-genome sequencing is a laboratory process that determines the complete DNA sequence of an organism’s genome at a single time and can be used for multiple tissue types and when only very small quantities of a full DNA copy are present | 23 |