Background
Methods
Study design
Advertisement-recruited participants
Advertisement-recruited participants | Street-recruited participants | |||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Both I&S* |
Only I* |
Only S* | ||||||
Characteristic
|
Women (n = 299-302)
|
Men (n = 249-253)
|
Women (n = 193-197)
|
Men (n = 73-75)
|
Women (n = 391-399)
|
Men (n = 151-153)
|
Women (n = 32-33)
|
Men (n = 59-60)
|
Age in years, mean ± SD | 46.9 ± 9.9 | 48.2 ± 10.6 | 47.5 ± 11.3 | 46.2 ± 11.9 | 49.4 ± 10.0 | 49.4 ± 10.6 | 42.0 ± 9.0 | 45.9 ± 10.7 |
Weight in kg, mean ± SD | 64.5 ± 8.2 | 78.9 ± 10.6 | 63.8 ± 7.9 | 77.6 ± 8.3 | 65.0 ± 9.2 | 78.4 ± 9.4 | 61.8 ± 7.3 | 78.0 ± 10.0 |
Height in cm, mean ± SD | 168.1 ± 6.2 | 180.9 ± 6.4 | 169.0 ± 5.6 | 181.7 ± 6.0 | 167.5 ± 6.4 | 179.9 ± 6.8 | 168.6 ± 5.2 | 182.0 ± 7.0 |
Body mass index, mean ± SD | 22.8 ± 2.6 | 24.1 ± 3.1 | 22.4 ± 2.5 | 23.5 ± 2.7 | 23.2 ± 3.0 | 24.2 ± 2.5 | 21.7 ± 2.4 | 23.5 ± 2.7 |
Gainful employment, % | 95 | 94 | 93 | 96 | 98 | 99 | 100 | 95 |
Educated at university level, % | 78 | 74 | 82 | 80 | 71 | 66 | 73 | 75 |
An income above 25.000 SEK** a month, % | 60 | 73 | 58 | 72 | 36 | 69 | 61 | 80 |
Participant and both parents born in Sweden, % | 79 | 86 | 82 | 84 | 80 | 89 | 69 | 87 |
Having a driver's licence, % | 94 | 96 | 92 | 91 | 90 | 95 | 91 | 97 |
Usually access to a car, % | 74 | 82 | 58 | 52 | 74 | 86 | 76 | 80 |
Leaving home 7-9 a.m. to cycle to work, % | 72 | 67 | 84 | 85 | 68 | 61 | 81 | 82 |
Number of bicycle-commuting trips per year***, mean ± SD | 240.7 ± 122.1 | 280.1 ± 135.7 | 317.7 ± 136.6 | 320.8 ± 117.3 | 265.8 ± 131.4 | 271.0 ± 141.4 | 301.4 ± 136.9 | 349.7 ± 84.1 |
Overall physical health either good or very good, % | 86 | 86 | 80 | 76 | 82 | 80 | 97 | 93 |
Overall mental health either good or very good, % | 83 | 86 | 84 | 80 | 80 | 84 | 91 | 88 |
Street-recruited participants
Experts
Existing objective measurements
The Physically Active Commuting in Greater Stockholm Questionnaire (PACS Q)
Measure of descriptive characteristics
The Active Commuting Route Environment Scale (ACRES)
Study area
Inner urban area
Suburban area
Statistical analyses
Results
Criterion-related validity: differences in ratings of inner urban and suburban route environments
Women (n = 286-302) | Men (n = 247-253) | |||||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Inner urban | Suburban | Difference | Inner urban | Suburban | Difference | |||||||
Item | Mean ± SD | Min - max | Mean ± SD | Min - max | Mean ± SD | p-value | Mean ± SD | Min - max | Mean ± SD | Min - max | Mean ± SD | p-value |
1. On the whole | 8.49 ± 3.41 | 1 - 15 | 11.25 ± 2.82 | 2 - 15 | -2.77 ± 3.51 | 0.000 | 8.49 ± 3.29 | 1 - 15 | 11.15 ± 2.68 | 3 - 15 | -2.66 ± 3.56 | 0.000 |
2. Hinders or stimulates | 9.13 ± 3.49 | 1 - 15 | 11.28 ± 2.93 | 1 - 15 | -2.15 ± 3.76 | 0.000 | 8.92 ± 3.08 | 1 - 15 | 10.82 ± 2.86 | 1 - 15 | -1.90 ± 3.36 | 0.000 |
3. Exhaust fumes | 10.44 ± 3.24 | 1 - 15 | 7.53 ± 3.46 | 1 - 15 | 2.91 ± 4.12 | 0.000 | 9.02 ± 3.21 | 1 - 15 | 6.36 ± 3.28 | 1 - 15 | 2.66 ± 3.63 | 0.000 |
4. Noise | 10.23 ± 3.11 | 1 - 15 | 7.67 ± 3.60 | 1 - 15 | 2.56 ± 3.96 | 0.000 | 8.74 ± 3.02 | 1 - 15 | 6.84 ± 3.29 | 1 - 15 | 1.90 ± 3.74 | 0.000 |
5. Flow of motor vehicles | 11.43 ± 3.40 | 1 - 15 | 8.18 ± 3.94 | 1 - 15 | 3.25 ± 4.59 | 0.000 | 10.55 ± 3.67 | 1 - 15 | 7.66 ± 3.79 | 1 - 15 | 2.89 ± 4.70 | 0.000 |
6. Speeds of motor vehicles | 9.74 ± 2.88 | 1 - 15 | 8.99 ± 3.32 | 1 - 15 | 0.74 ± 3.56 | 0.000 | 8.73 ± 2.77 | 1 - 15 | 8.79 ± 2.89 | 1 - 15 | -0.06 ± 2.81 | 0.754 |
7. Speeds of bicyclists | 9.94 ± 2.73 | 1 - 15 | 9.92 ± 2.59 | 1 - 15 | 0.03 ± 2.45 | 0.851 | 7.76 ± 2.84 | 1 - 15 | 8.06 ± 2.62 | 1 - 15 | -0.29 ± 2.13 | 0.031 |
8. Congestion: all types of vehicles | 10.72 ± 3.52 | 1 - 15 | 6.74 ± 3.42 | 1 - 15 | 3.98 ± 4.20 | 0.000 | 10.14 ± 3.42 | 1 - 15 | 5.46 ± 3.08 | 1 - 15 | 4.68 ± 4.08 | 0.000 |
9. Congestion: bicyclists | 9.31 ± 3.81 | 1 - 15 | 6.26 ± 3.76 | 1 - 15 | 3.04 ± 4.35 | 0.000 | 8.64 ± 3.90 | 1 - 15 | 4.99 ± 3.29 | 1 - 15 | 3.65 ± 4.31 | 0.000 |
10. Conflicts | 8.14 ± 3.82 | 1 - 15 | 5.44 ± 3.63 | 1 - 15 | 2.70 ± 4.00 | 0.000 | 8.56 ± 3.77 | 1 - 15 | 5.19 ± 3.47 | 1 - 15 | 3.37 ± 3.88 | 0.000 |
11. Bicycle paths* | 6.37 ± 2.95 | 0 - 10 | 7.67 ± 2.35 | 0 - 10 | -1.30 ± 3.75 | 0.000 | 5.90 ± 2.77 | 0 - 10 | 7.42 ± 2.30 | 0 - 10 | -1.52 ± 3.41 | 0.000 |
12. Traffic: unsafe or safe | 8.24 ± 3.89 | 1 - 15 | 11.29 ± 2.99 | 2 - 15 | -3.05 ± 3.96 | 0.000 | 8.68 ± 3.55 | 1 - 15 | 11.55 ± 2.82 | 1 - 15 | -2.87 ± 3.40 | 0.000 |
13. Greenery | 7.09 ± 4.11 | 1 - 15 | 10.96 ± 3.43 | 1 - 15 | -3.86 ± 4.68 | 0.000 | 6.72 ± 3.88 | 1 - 15 | 10.84 ± 2.98 | 1 - 15 | -4.12 ± 4.29 | 0.000 |
14. Ugly or beautiful | 9.88 ± 3.35 | 1 - 15 | 10.74 ± 3.08 | 1 - 15 | -0.86 ± 4.12 | 0.000 | 9.84 ± 3.22 | 1 - 15 | 10.21 ± 2.99 | 1 - 15 | -0.37 ± 4.01 | 0.145 |
15. Course of the route | 6.98 ± 3.86 | 1 - 15 | 5.41 ± 3.51 | 1 - 15 | 1.57 ± 3.98 | 0.000 | 7.48 ± 4.01 | 1 - 15 | 5.60 ± 3.65 | 1 - 15 | 1.89 ± 3.60 | 0.000 |
16. Hilliness | 5.20 ± 3.70 | 1 - 15 | 6.61 ± 4.16 | 1 - 15 | -1.41 ± 3.79 | 0.000 | 5.07 ± 3.44 | 1 - 13 | 6.24 ± 3.83 | 1 - 15 | -1.17 ± 2.91 | 0.000 |
17. Red lights | 8.06 ± 4.62 | 1 - 15 | 3.98 ± 3.48 | 1 - 15 | 4.08 ± 5.20 | 0.000 | 8.25 ± 4.33 | 1 - 15 | 4.50 ± 3.46 | 1 - 15 | 3.75 ± 4.88 | 0.000 |
18. Short or long | 6.78 ± 2.98 | 1 - 15 | 7.78 ± 3.02 | 1 - 15 | -1.00 ± 3.95 | 0.000 | 6.95 ± 2.32 | 1 - 14 | 7.85 ± 2.71 | 1 - 14 | -0.90 ± 3.10 | 0.000 |
Representativity: relationships between ratings of advertisement-recruited and street-recruited participants
Women (n = 32-33) | Men (n = 58-60) | |||||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Inner urban | Suburban | Difference | Inner urban | Suburban | Difference | |||||||
Item | Mean ± SD | Min - max | Mean ± SD | Min - max | Mean ± SD | p-value | Mean ± SD | Min - max | Mean ± SD | Min - max | Mean ± SD | p-value |
1. On the whole | 10.03 ± 2.55 | 4 - 14 | 10.78 ± 2.95 | 5 - 15 | -0.75 ± 2.87 | 0.150 | 8.19 ± 3.61 | 1 - 15 | 10.24 ± 2.77 | 4 - 15 | -2.05 ± 3.59 | 0.000 |
2. Hinders or stimulates | 10.58 ± 2.80 | 3 - 14 | 10.85 ± 3.03 | 1 - 15 | -0.27 ± 3.10 | 0.616 | 8.90 ± 3.29 | 3 - 15 | 10.66 ± 2.65 | 4 - 15 | -1.76 ± 3.47 | 0.000 |
3. Exhaust fumes | 10.18 ± 3.14 | 2 - 15 | 8.61 ± 2.84 | 3 - 14 | 1.58 ± 3.84 | 0.025 | 9.68 ± 3.00 | 3 - 15 | 7.52 ± 3.39 | 1 - 15 | 2.17 ± 3.66 | 0.000 |
4. Noise | 10.06 ± 3.17 | 3 - 15 | 8.24 ± 3.10 | 1 - 14 | 1.82 ± 3.96 | 0.013 | 9.83 ± 2.66 | 4 - 14 | 8.52 ± 3.46 | 1 - 14 | 1.32 ± 3.59 | 0.006 |
5. Flow of motor vehicles | 11.73 ± 3.46 | 3 - 15 | 9.45 ± 3.75 | 1 - 15 | 2.27 ± 4.03 | 0.003 | 11.38 ± 2.63 | 4 - 15 | 9.53 ± 3.95 | 1 - 15 | 1.84 ± 3.75 | 0.000 |
6. Speeds of motor vehicles | 9.53 ± 2.59 | 3 - 15 | 9.59 ± 2.34 | 3 - 14 | -0.06 ± 1.50 | 0.815 | 8.92 ± 2.77 | 1 - 15 | 9.31 ± 2.76 | 1 - 15 | -0.39 ± 2.28 | 0.195 |
7. Speeds of bicyclists | 10.15 ± 2.74 | 4 - 15 | 9.67 ± 2.57 | 5 - 15 | 0.48 ± 2.54 | 0.281 | 7.85 ± 2.04 | 4 - 14 | 8.55 ± 2.00 | 1 - 14 | -0.70 ± 1.84 | 0.005 |
8. Congestion: all types of vehicles | 10.63 ± 3.14 | 2 - 15 | 7.50 ± 2.63 | 2 - 12 | 3.13 ± 3.38 | 0.000 | 10.53 ± 3.10 | 2 - 15 | 6.53 ± 3.11 | 1 - 15 | 4.00 ± 3.69 | 0.000 |
9. Congestion: bicyclists | 9.61 ± 4.03 | 2 - 15 | 6.48 ± 3.35 | 1 - 13 | 3.12 ± 4.58 | 0.000 | 8.17 ± 3.81 | 1 - 15 | 5.15 ± 3.27 | 1 - 12 | 3.02 ± 3.93 | 0.000 |
10. Conflicts | 8.42 ± 3.89 | 1 - 14 | 5.70 ± 3.65 | 1 - 13 | 2.73 ± 3.78 | 0.000 | 8.43 ± 3.97 | 1 - 15 | 5.38 ± 3.37 | 1 - 13 | 3.05 ± 3.98 | 0.000 |
11. Bicycle paths* | 7.22 ± 2.27 | 1 - 10 | 7.91 ± 2.18 | 2 - 10 | -0.69 ± 3.25 | 0.240 | 6.44 ± 2.47 | 0 - 10 | 7.46 ± 2.49 | 1 - 10 | -1.02 ± 3.50 | 0.029 |
12. Traffic: unsafe or safe | 9.42 ± 3.47 | 3 - 15 | 11.45 ± 2.59 | 8 - 15 | -2.03 ± 3.04 | 0.001 | 8.77 ± 3.22 | 1 - 15 | 11.62 ± 2.58 | 5 - 15 | -2.85 ± 3.44 | 0.000 |
13. Greenery | 8.12 ± 3.45 | 2 - 15 | 9.91 ± 3.47 | 1 - 15 | -1.79 ± 4.49 | 0.029 | 6.14 ± 3.42 | 1 - 15 | 10.20 ± 3.18 | 1 - 15 | -4.07 ± 4.48 | 0.000 |
14. Ugly or beautiful | 11.42 ± 2.96 | 5 - 15 | 11.12 ± 3.04 | 4 - 15 | 0.30 ± 3.79 | 0.649 | 9.47 ± 3.32 | 3 - 15 | 9.18 ± 3.29 | 3 - 15 | 0.28 ± 4.78 | 0.648 |
15. Course of the route | 6.59 ± 3.79 | 1 - 13 | 5.38 ± 3.66 | 1 - 13 | 1.22 ± 2.62 | 0.013 | 7.35 ± 3.24 | 2 - 14 | 5.38 ± 3.38 | 1 - 14 | 1.97 ± 3.96 | 0.000 |
16. Hilliness | 5.82 ± 3.81 | 1 - 13 | 6.21 ± 3.87 | 1 - 14 | -0.39 ± 3.40 | 0.510 | 4.70 ± 3.30 | 1 - 12 | 6.52 ± 3.88 | 1 - 14 | -1.82 ± 4.18 | 0.001 |
17. Red lights | 8.09 ± 4.38 | 1 - 15 | 5.33 ± 3.59 | 1 - 15 | 2.76 ± 3.64 | 0.000 | 7.65 ± 3.93 | 1 - 14 | 4.23 ± 3.38 | 1 - 13 | 3.42 ± 4.61 | 0.000 |
18. Short or long | 6.58 ± 2.37 | 1 - 10 | 6.91 ± 3.22 | 1 - 12 | -0.33 ± 4.07 | 0.641 | 6.45 ± 2.22 | 2 - 10 | 7.20 ± 2.48 | 1 - 12 | -0.75 ± 3.14 | 0.069 |
Commuting route environment profiles: comparisons between the inner urban and suburban areas as well as between the subgroups
Women | Men | |||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Only I* (n = 194-197)
|
Only S* (n = 394-399)
| Difference |
Only I(n = 74-75)
|
Only S(n = 151-153)
| Difference | |||
Item | Mean ± SD | Mean ± SD | Mean ± SEd** | p-value | Mean ± SD | Mean ± SD | Mean ± SEd | p-value |
1. On the whole | 8.72 ± 3.35 | 11.63 ± 2.75 | -2.92 ± 0.28 | 0.000 | 8.47 ± 3.33 | 11.14 ± 2.66 | -2.67 ± 0.44 | 0.000 |
2. Hinders or stimulates | 9.52 ± 3.52 | 11.73 ± 2.70 | -2.21 ± 0.29 | 0.000 | 9.15 ± 2.78 | 11.08 ± 2.83 | -1.94 ± 0.40 | 0.000 |
3. Exhaust fumes | 10.16 ± 2.86 | 6.47 ± 3.75 | 3.69 ± 0.28 | 0.000 | 10.15 ± 2.74 | 6.35 ± 3.40 | 3.79 ± 0.42 | 0.000 |
4. Noise | 9.78 ± 2.78 | 6.56 ± 3.75 | 3.21 ± 0.27 | 0.000 | 9.79 ± 2.78 | 6.78 ± 3.19 | 3.00 ± 0.43 | 0.000 |
5. Flow of motor vehicles | 11.35 ± 2.93 | 6.99 ± 4.13 | 4.36 ± 0.29 | 0.000 | 11.27 ± 2.69 | 7.35 ± 3.55 | 3.92 ± 0.42 | 0.000 |
6. Speeds of motor vehicles | 10.16 ± 2.63 | 7.81 ± 3.34 | 2.35 ± 0.25 | 0.000 | 8.91 ± 2.73 | 8.14 ± 3.15 | 0.76 ± 0.43 | 0.075 |
7. Speeds of bicyclists | 9.91 ± 2.42 | 8.64 ± 2.51 | 1.27 ± 0.22 | 0.000 | 8.77 ± 2.59 | 7.80 ± 1.94 | 0.97 ± 0.34 | 0.005 |
8. Congestion: all types of vehicles | 10.33 ± 2.97 | 5.35 ± 3.55 | 4.98 ± 0.28 | 0.000 | 10.77 ± 2.70 | 5.69 ± 3.23 | 5.09 ± 0.41 | 0.000 |
9. Congestion: bicyclists | 9.01 ± 3.33 | 3.84 ± 2.98 | 5.17 ± 0.27 | 0.000 | 8.20 ± 3.67 | 3.50 ± 2.52 | 4.70 ± 0.47 | 0.000 |
10. Conflicts | 7.81 ± 3.60 | 4.49 ± 3.44 | 3.32 ± 0.30 | 0.000 | 9.08 ± 3.38 | 5.01 ± 3.54 | 4.07 ± 0.49 | 0.000 |
11. Bicycle paths*** | 5.45 ± 2.76 | 6.65 ± 2.84 | -1.20 ± 0.24 | 0.000 | 4.73 ± 2.88 | 6.18 ± 2.78 | -1.45 ± 0.40 | 0.000 |
12. Traffic: unsafe or safe | 8.66 ± 3.59 | 11.61 ± 3.10 | -2.94 ± 0.30 | 0.000 | 8.81 ± 3.54 | 11.46 ± 2.76 | -2.64 ± 0.47 | 0.000 |
13. Greenery | 7.43 ± 4.17 | 12.04 ± 2.88 | -4.61 ± 0.33 | 0.000 | 7.33 ± 3.71 | 11.39 ± 2.84 | -4.06 ± 0.49 | 0.000 |
14. Ugly or beautiful | 10.62 ± 3.32 | 11.28 ± 2.73 | -0.66 ± 0.27 | 0.017 | 10.68 ± 2.93 | 10.53 ± 2.68 | 0.15 ± 0.39 | 0.700 |
15. Course of the route | 6.25 ± 3.43 | 4.74 ± 3.45 | 1.51 ± 0.30 | 0.000 | 7.29 ± 3.86 | 5.31 ± 3.18 | 1.99 ± 0.48 | 0.000 |
16. Hilliness | 4.81 ± 3.46 | 5.78 ± 3.91 | -0.97 ± 0.32 | 0.002 | 5.56 ± 3.48 | 5.93 ± 3.84 | -0.37 ± 0.53 | 0.477 |
17. Red lights | 7.87 ± 3.98 | 3.62 ± 3.52 | 4.26 ± 0.33 | 0.000 | 9.27 ± 3.61 | 3.90 ± 3.20 | 5.36 ± 0.47 | 0.000 |
18. Short or long | 5.26 ± 2.64 | 6.46 ± 3.37 | -1.20 ± 0.25 | 0.000 | 5.52 ± 2.75 | 7.08 ± 2.87 | -1.56 ± 0.40 | 0.000 |
Inner urban: Difference: Only I* and Both I&S* | Suburban: Difference: Only S* and Both I&S
| |||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Women | Men | Women | Men | |||||
Item | Mean ± SEd** | p-value | Mean ± SEd | p-value | Mean ± SEd | p-value | Mean ± SEd | p-value |
1. On the whole | 0.24 ± 0.32 | 0.439 | -0.02 ± 0.44 | 0.965 | 0.38 ± 0.22 | 0.081 | -0.01 ± 0.28 | 0.981 |
2. Hinders or stimulates | 0.39 ± 0.32 | 0.230 | 0.24 ± 0.40 | 0.554 | 0.45 ± 0.22 | 0.038 | 0.27 ± 0.29 | 0.359 |
3. Exhaust fumes | -0.28 ± 0.28 | 0.318 | 1.12 ± 0.41 | 0.006 | -1.06 ± 0.27 | 0.000 | -0.01 ± 0.34 | 0.981 |
4. Noise | -0.45 ± 0.27 | 0.099 | 1.05 ± 0.39 | 0.008 | -1.09 ± 0.28 | 0.000 | -0.05 ± 0.33 | 0.872 |
5. Flow of motor vehicles | -0.09 ± 0.29 | 0.749 | 0.70 ± 0.39 | 0.073 | -1.19 ± 0.31 | 0.000 | -0.32 ± 0.38 | 0.405 |
6. Speeds of motor vehicles | 0.42 ± 0.25 | 0.098 | 0.18 ± 0.36 | 0.629 | -1.18 ± 0.25 | 0.000 | -0.65 ± 0.31 | 0.036 |
7. Speeds of bicyclists | -0.03 ± 0.24 | 0.899 | 1.01 ± 0.37 | 0.006 | -1.28 ± 0.20 | 0.000 | -0.25 ± 0.23 | 0.270 |
8. Congestion: all types of vehicles | -0.40 ± 0.29 | 0.173 | 0.66 ± 0.38 | 0.082 | -1.38 ± 0.27 | 0.000 | 0.23 ± 0.32 | 0.479 |
9. Congestion: bicyclists | -0.30 ± 0.32 | 0.358 | -0.44 ± 0.51 | 0.381 | -2.42 ± 0.26 | 0.000 | -1.49 ± 0.29 | 0.000 |
10. Conflicts | -0.33 ± 0.34 | 0.337 | 0.52 ± 0.48 | 0.287 | -0.95 ± 0.27 | 0.001 | -0.16 ± 0.36 | 0.654 |
11. Bicycle paths*** | -0.93 ± 0.26 | 0.000 | -1.15 ± 0.37 | 0.002 | -1.01 ± 0.20 | 0.000 | -1.24 ± 0.27 | 0.000 |
12. Traffic: unsafe or safe | 0.43 ± 0.35 | 0.218 | 0.13 ± 0.47 | 0.781 | 0.32 ± 0.23 | 0.173 | -0.09 ± 0.29 | 0.749 |
13. Greenery | 0.33 ± 0.38 | 0.378 | 0.61 ± 0.51 | 0.226 | 1.08 ± 0.24 | 0.000 | 0.56 ± 0.30 | 0.065 |
14. Ugly or beautiful | 0.73 ± 0.31 | 0.017 | 0.84 ± 0.42 | 0.044 | 0.53 ± 0.22 | 0.018 | 0.32 ± 0.29 | 0.280 |
15. Course of the route | -0.72 ± 0.34 | 0.033 | -0.19 ± 0.52 | 0.715 | -0.68 ± 0.27 | 0.011 | -0.29 ± 0.35 | 0.405 |
16. Hilliness | -0.39 ± 0.33 | 0.236 | 0.49 ± 0.45 | 0.282 | -0.83 ± 0.31 | 0.007 | -0.31 ± 0.39 | 0.435 |
17. Red lights | -0.19 ± 0.39 | 0.632 | 1.02 ± 0.50 | 0.043 | -0.36 ± 0.27 | 0.176 | -0.60 ± 0.34 | 0.085 |
18. Short or long | -1.52 ± 0.26 | 0.000 | -1.43 ± 0.35 | 0.000 | -1.32 ± 0.24 | 0.000 | -0.77 ± 0.29 | 0.008 |