Discussion
Self-mutilation, a very unusual situation in routine urology, is a direct and deliberate harm to one's body without conscious intent to die. It is observed in both men and women with various psychiatric disorders [
6]. Self-castration is an uncommon phenomenon. It usually occurs in the context of a psychotic disorder, specifically schizophrenia [
7], with evidence suggesting an increased prevalence of psychosis surrounding the time of self-castration [
2,
8]. Genital self-mutilation has also been documented in other patient populations, including individuals suffering from character pathology [
7], substance abuse [
4], gender identity issues [
9], issues of religious content, guilt, sexual conflict, and with a history of depression with a severe suicide attempt, severe childhood deprivation, loss of a father and sexual identity disturbances specific to males [
8]. Few cases have been reported within the last 20 years.
We report here the first case of a patient who self-mutilated his testes with his long fingernails under the influence of cannabis. Many theories consider self-mutilation to be a strategy to reduce distress or tension, an expression of anger or shame, or manipulative behavior. Some authors link this behavior to borderline personality disorder [
10] or treat it as a means for the patient of controlling traumatic childhood experiences [
11]. Our patient, however, had no history of childhood trauma or any axis II disorder. A high consumption of cannabis just before his act led us to the belief that cannabis abuse was the trigger for testicular self-mutilation. Self-mutilation may also be linked to difficulties in impulse control, as here. In any case, the clinical characteristics of self-mutilation are manifold, and its etiology is a topic for debate [
12].
Cannabis, also known as "marijuana", "marihuana", "hashish" and "ganja", is a psychoactive drug, which is forbidden in many states. It is very prevalent in Africa, especially in Morocco, and in South America. There is a close relationship between dopamine and self-mutilation. High doses of dopaminergic agonists, such as amphetamine, can engender self-mutilation. We know that psychoactive substances (such as cocaine and cannabis) alter synaptic transmission by interacting with dopamine transporters, and that their dopaminergic action is one of their most important neurobiological properties. Gorea and Lombard report that the dopaminergic system may participate in mutilating behavior in rats [
13].
The complex behavior associated with cannabis abuse may be one cause of self-mutilation. In animals, delta-9-tetrahydrocannabinol enhances dopaminergic neurotransmission in brain regions known to be implicated in psychosis. Studies in humans show that genetic vulnerability may add to increased risk of developing psychosis and cognitive impairments following cannabis consumption. Delta-9-tetrahydrocannabinol induces psychotic like states and memory impairments in healthy volunteers [
14]. Dysfunction of the inhibitory brain circuitry in drug addiction [
15] could explain why this patient lost control and mutilated himself following drug use.
Treatment for this patient population can be challenging. An integrated liaison-type psychiatric intervention can be effective in improving compliance with psychiatric treatment, surgical outcomes and reducing medical consumption [
16]. The first step in the treatment of our patient was to admit to the surgical unit to achieve haemostasis. We had to first perform computed tomography with intravenous contrast to locate his spermatic cord, as our choice of incision depended on its location. If the spermatic cord is not retracted, a scrotal incision should be made, but in cases where the spermatic cord is not visible, then inguinal or retroperitoneal exploration should be attempted to gain access to the testicular vessels and provide hemostasis. Secondly, evidence has implicated serotonergic depletion and dopaminergic stimulation in self-injurious behaviors, supporting the use of paroxetine and risperidone, respectively, in this case [
17,
18]. Some authors have authorized the use of mood stabilizers such as lithium, valproic acid, or carbamazepine as alternative treatments. The role of psychotherapy can be effective for these patients in establishing a therapeutic alliance with a care provider and providing ego support.
Lastly, hormone replacement therapy based on testosterone was proposed to the patient and his family (with different pharmaceutical presentations: intramuscular, oral, patch). The risks of not treating this castration state were illustrated, with major risks being cardiovascular and osteoporotic, and other minor risks including asthenia, obesity and mood disorder.
Competing interests
The authors declare that they have no competing interests.
Authors' contributions
MA was the principal author and a major contributor in writing the manuscript. MFT analyzed and interpreted the patient data and review of the literature. AK, MJE, MHF read and corrected the manuscript. AB and KL both provided medical and surgical support for this case, and contributed to the writing of the paper. RSW contributed to the writing of the paper. All authors read and approved the final manuscript.