Background
Prevention of cardiovascular events
Increase the consumption of fresh fruit and vegetables of all kinds |
Increase the consumption of legumes such as beans, peas, chickpeas and lentils |
Eat fish two or three times a week |
Encourage the use of extra-virgin olive oil and sunflower and maize oils |
Limit the consumption of animal saturated fat acids such as butter, lard and cream |
Combination antiretroviral therapy (cART) switching
General principles
Switch strategies in antiretroviral therapy in the management of dyslipidemia
Study Acronym | Study Design | Enrolled patients | Markers evaluated | time endpoint evauation | Laboratory markers change | reference |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
STRATEGY- NNRTI | Randomized, open label switch study looking at the non inferiority of switching patients who were virologically suppressed on an NNRTI based regimen to co-formulated elvitegravir | 439 patients. 266 out of 291 participants randomized to the switch group completed the study. 119 out of 143 participants assigned to the no-switch group completed the study | Fasting serum cholesterol; fasting serum HDL-C; fasting serum LDL-C; fasting serum triglyceride; CD4 cell count; HIV RNA; | 48 | At week 48 93% of participants in the switch group and 88% in the no-switch group maintained plasma viral load <50 copies/ml. No emergent resistances were observed among the two groups. Starting at week 4 increases of serum creatinine were observed among the switch group; increase was stable and non progressive through week 48. A small decrease in HDL-C was observed in the switch group. | [32] |
STRATEGY PI | Multicenter randomised open-label trial investigating the non inferiority of switching to co-formuated elvitegravir in patients virologically suppressed on a PI based regimen | 433 patients. 293 were included in the group switching to co-formulated elvitegravir and 140 remained on their existing regimen | Fasting serum COL; fasting serum HDL-C; fasting serum LDL-C; fasting serum TG; CD4 cell count; HIV RNA; | 48 | At week 48 3.8% of patients enrolled in the switch arm abd 87.1% of participants in the no-switch arm maintained a plasma HIV RNA <50 copies/ml. Starting at week 4 a stable non progressive increase in serum creatinine occurred among switch arm participants. A decrease in serum triglycerides was observed in the switch group. | [32] |
SPIRAL Substudy | Changes in cardiovascular biomarkers in HIV-infectedpatients switching from ritonavir-boosted proteaseinhibitors to raltegravir | Of 273 patients initiating study drugs in the SPIRAL trial, 233 (119 RAL, 114 PI/r) remained on allocated therapy for 48 weeks and had sera available for the purpose of this substudy | hsCRP MCP-1 OPG IL-6 IL-10 TNF-a ICAM-1 VCAM-1 Selectin E Selectin P Adiponectin Insulin D-dimer | 48 | hsCRP (40%, P < 0.0001), MCP-1 (20%, P¼0.0003), osteoprotegerin (13%, P¼0.0024), IL-6 (46%,P < 0.0001), TNF-a (27%, P¼0.0011), insulin (26%, P < 0.0001), and D-dimer (8%, P¼0.0187) decreased in RAL relative to PI/r group, whereas IL-10 (þ1%, P¼0.7773), ICAM-1 (6%, P¼0.1255), VCAM-1(0%, P¼0.8671), E-selectin (9%, P¼0.2174), P-selectin (6%, P¼0.3865), and adiponectin (þ8%, P¼0.2028) remained unchanged | [34] |
SPIRAL Substudy LDL | LDL subclasses and lipoprotein-phospholipase A2 activity in suppressed HIV-infected patients switching to raltegravir | 81 (41 PI/r and 40 raltegravir) patients were evaluated | Total cholesterol, LDL-c, HDL-c,Triglycerides, TC/HDL-c,Non-HDL-c, Apo A-I, Apo B, ApoA-I/Apo B Lipoprotein PCSK9,LDL size, Cholesterol content in sdLDLLDL phenotype A, LDL phenotype intermediate, LDL phenotype B, Lp-PLA2 Total LDL-Lp-PLA2 Total HDL-Lp-PLA2 8 (4; 14.9) 8.7 (5.4; 17.2) 0.829Insulin, C-Peptide, HOMA index | 48 | TC, LDL-c, non-HDL-c, TC/HDL, triglyceride, Apo B, Apo A-I and Lp (a) decreased in raltegravir arm compared to PI/r arm. A shift from LDL phenotype B to the less atherogenic phenotype A was observed only in raltegravir arm. | [31] |
SPIRAL-LIP substudy | To compare 48-week changes in body fat distribution and bone mineral density (BMD) - using Dual-energy X-ray absorptiometry and computed tomography scans - between patients switching from a ritonavir-boosted protease inhibitor (PI/r) to raltegravir (RAL) and patients continuing with PI/r. | 86 patients were included and 74 patients (39 RAL, 35 PI/r) completed the substudy. |
CT-scan:TAT (cm2) SAT (cm2) SAT (%) VAT (cm2) VAT (%)SAT/VATSAT, subcutaneous adipose tissue; TAT, total adipose tissue; VAT, visceral adipose tissue | 48 | Significant increases in median VAT and TAT were seen within the PI/r group.No significant changes in body fat were seen with RAL or between treatment groups. | [34] |
ANRS 138 Substudy | To compare the effect of randomly switching virologically suppressed, treatment-experienced patient from enfuvirtide to raltegravir on biomarker levels | 164 participants in the ANRS138 trial | IL-6 hsCRP Level D-dimer | 24, 48 | At week 24, a significant decrease from baseline was observed in the IS arm, compared with the DS arm, for IL-6 level (−30% vs +10%; P < .002), hsCRP level (−46% vs +15%; P < .0001), and D-dimer level (−40% vs +6%; P < .0001). At week 48, there was a reproducible decrease in levels of all biomarkers in the DS arm | [132] |
na | We retrospectively identified from our electronic database all patients with HIV RNA < 50 copies/ml for >6 months on an NVP-containing regimen and no prior exposure to integrase strand transfer inhibitors who were switched to RAL plus NVP. | 39 patients | Total cholesterol, HDL-cholesterol,LDL-cholesterol,Total cholesterol/HDL ratio,triglycerides | 24, 48, 72 | Median changes in serum lipids showed significant improvement at M6 for all paremeters except low-density lipoprotein-cholesterol in the whole population but lipid improvement was greater in the PI/r group | [133] |
na | multi-centric retrospective study was conducted including HIV-1-positive patients on raltegravir/nevirapinedual regimens | 77 patients switching from successful regimens | routine biochemical tests | 48,96 | In patients switching with lipid abnormalities [n = 52; 19 (36.5%) on statins, 3 on fibrates (5.7%), 4 on omega-3 fatty acids (7.7%)] triglycerides showed a significant decrease both at 48 and 96 weeks (−83 mg/dL with p = 0.004 and −51 mg/dL with p = 0.011, respectively), while total and LDL-cl were unchanged (p = 0.11 and p = 0.12, respectively). | [134] |
STRIIVING | randomized open label,non inferiority trial | 551 patients on aintegrase inhibitors pr protease inhibitor or nonucleoside reverse trascriptase inhibitor regimens with HIV-RNA < 50 copie/mL were included | TC, HDL-C, LDL C, TG,TC/ratio; hs-PCR,sCD1s,sCD163, IL-6, D-dimer, sVCAM, I-FABP | 24 | Significant declines of the levels of I-FABP and sCD14 was observed at 24 weeks | [135] |
Study Acronym | Study Design and Enrolled Patients | Markers evaluated | time endpoint evauation | Laboratory markers change | Ref |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
LIPNEFA (a subset of NEFA) | A subset (n. 90) of virologically suppressed HIV-infected patients enrolled in the NEFA study [98] enrolled in the NEFA study were analyzed for the HDL-C and LDL-C levels in the metabolic and body-composition substudy LIPNEFA . | HDL-C and LDL-C levels | 24 | At 24 months, efavirenz (EFV) and nevirapine (NVP) produced similar lipid benefits: HDL-C levels increased [EFV, 15% (p = 0.001); NVP, 21% (p < 0.001)] and TC to HDL-C ratios decreased [EFV, 14% (p < 0.001); NVP, 19% (p < 0.01)]. | [25] |
SPIRIT | Virologically suppressed HIV-infected adults who were receiving a PI-based HAART were switched to emtricitabine-rilpivirine-tenofovir difumarate (FTC-RPV-TDF). | TC, LDL-C, TGL, and TC:HDL-C ratio. | 24 | At 24 weeks, levels of TC, LDL-C, TGL, and the TC:HDL-C ratio had improved significantly in patients switched to FTC-RPV-TDF compared to those patients who kept their original PI-based treatment (p < 0.001). Nevertheless, HDL-C levels declined significantly less with the PI-based regimen (p < 0.001). | [17] |
Study 111 | Virologically suppressed patients who were switched from EFV-TDF- FTC to RPV-TDF-FTC. | Fasting TC, LDL-C, HDL-C, TGL, and TC:HDL-C ratio. | 12, 48 | A significative decline in fasting TC, LDL-C and TGL at 12 weeks into the protocol. Results at week 48 remained in the same direction (p = 0.016), although changes from baseline in HDL-C and the TC:HDL-C ratio were not significant. The introduction of RPV in the clinical arena has been very positive for the patients care, but we all have to remember the risk of a prolongation of QT interval with higher doses of this compound (i.e. 75 and 300 mg QD) as seen in the early phases of clinical development. | [136] |
Etraswitch | The switch from a PI-containing regimen to etravirine (ETR) in patients with therapeutic success. | Glycemia, fasting TC, LDL-C, HDL-C, TGL, and TC:HDL-C ratio. | 24 | The group of patients who received ETR showed a significant reduction in TC (p < 0.001), TGL (p < 0.001), and glycemia (p = 0.03). The 2 groups differed significantly in TGL and glycemia at week 24. The greatest improvement in all lipids was seen in patients who switched from lopinavir/ritonavir to ETR. | [28] |
na | A prospective, open-label, 12-week study of HIV-infected patients receiving either a on bPI or EFV, and statin treatment. Four weeks after statin interruption, bPI or EFV was switched to ETR (400 mg for 8 weeks) if serum low-density lipoprotein cholesterol (LDL-C) was ≥3 mM. The primary endpoint was the proportion of patients not qualifying for statin treatment 8 weeks after the ETR switch. | Fasting TC, LDL-C, HDL-C, TGL, and TC:HDL-C ratio. | 12 | After 8 weeks of ETR treatment, 15 patients (56%) on ETR did not qualify for statin treatment. After the ETR switch, serum levels of the cardiovascular biomarkers sICAM and MCP1/CCL2 decreased by 11.2% and 18.9%, respectively, and those of CCL5/RANTES and tissue inhibitor of metalloproteinase-1 increased by 14.3% and 13.4%, respectively, indicating reduced cardiovascular risk. | [137] |
Monitoring after switching cART regimen
New antiretroviral drugs and cardiovascular risk
Tenofovir Alefenamide
Cabotegravir
Doravirine
Pharmacological treatment of dyslipidemia
Drugs for the treatment of hypercholesterolemia
Statins
Type of study | Method | N°of patients | Effect of statin therapy | Ref |
---|---|---|---|---|
Meta-analysis | Coronary VH-IVUS | 830 non HIV-infected patients | Reduction of plaque volume | [138] |
Randomized double-blind, placebo controlled trial | FDG-PET of the aorta | 40 HIV-infected patients | Reduction of plaque volume and high-risk plaque morphology over 52 weeks | [139] |
Randomized double-blind, placebo controlled trial | Common carotid artery IMT | 147 HIV-infected patients on stable ART | Less progression of CCA IMT over 96 weeks | [52] |
1) Patients with clinical atherosclerotic CVD
a
| |
2) Patients without clinical atherosclerotic CVD, with LDL-C level ≥ 190 mg/dl
| |
3) Patients aged 40–75 years, with type I or II diabetes mellitus, and LDL-C level < 190 mg/dl | |
4) Patients without clinical atherosclerotic CVD or diabetes, aged 40–75 years, with LDL-C < 190 mg/dl, and an estimated 10-year CV risk ≥ 7.5%
b
|
Reduction of LDL-C level | ||||
---|---|---|---|---|
50%
|
30–50%
|
≤30%
| ||
Intensity dose (dose of statin daily)
| ||||
High
| Atorvastatin 20–40 mg Rosuvastatin 20–40 mg | |||
Moderate
| Atorvastatin 10–20 mg Rosuvastatin 5–10 mg Simvastatin 20–40 mg Pravastatin 40–80 mg Fluvastatin 80 mg Pitavastatin 2–4 mg | |||
Low
| Simvastatin 10 mg Pravastatin 10–20 mg Lovastatin 20 mg Fluvastatin 20–40 mg Pitavastatin 1 mg |
Non-statin drugs for the treatment of hypercholesterolemia
Ezetimibe
PCSK9 inhibitors
Study Design | Enrolled patients | Efficacy results | Safety results | reference |
---|---|---|---|---|
Meta-analysis on Phase 2 or 3 randomized, controlled trials (RCTs) comparing treatment using PCSK9 antibodies with no anti-PCSK9 therapy in adults with hypercholesterolemia. | Twenty-four RCTs comprising 10,159 patients were included. | Treatment with PCSK9 antibodies led to marked reductions in LDL-C (mean difference, −47.49% [95% CI, −9.64% to −25.35%]; P < 0.001] and it reduced all-cause mortality ([OR], 0.45 [CI, 0.23 to 0.86]; P = 0.015; heterogeneity P = 0.63; I2 = 0%) and cardiovascular mortality (OR, 0.50 [CI, 0.23 to 1.10]; P = 0.084; heterogeneity P = 0.78; I2 = 0%). | The overall incidence of serious adverse events was 9.26% (573 of 6187) among patients treated with PCSK9 antibodies and 7.73% (307 of 3972) among patients who were not treated with PCSK9 antibodies (OR, 1.01 [CI, 0.87 to 1.18]; P = 0.879; heterogeneity P = 0.98; I2 = 0%). | [77] |
Meta-analysis to evaluate the safety and efficacy of anti-PCSK9 antibodies in randomized, controlled trials (RCTs). | Twenty-five RCTs encompassing 12,200 patients were included | Evolocumab treatment significantly reduced LDL-C by −54.6% and by absolute −78.9 mg/dl versus placebo, and by −36.3% versus ezetimibe. Alirocumab lowered LDL-C by −52.6% versus placebo, by −29.9% versus ezetimibe. | Alirocumab was associated with an increased rate of injection-site reactions (RR: 1.48, 95% CI: 1.05 to 2.09, P = 0.02) | [78] |
ODYSSEY FH I and II: two randomized, double-blind studies to assess long-term alirocumab in patients with heterozygous familial hypercholesterolaemia | ODYSSEY FH I, n = 486; FH II, n = 249 subjects | Mean LDL-C levels decreased from 3.7 mmol/L (144.7 mg/dL) at baseline to 1.8 mmol/L (71.3 mg/dL; 257.9% vs. placebo) at Week 24 in patients randomized to alirocumab in FH I and from 3.5 mmol/L (134.6 mg/dL) to 1.8 mmol/L (67.7 mg/dL; 251.4% vs. placebo) in FH II (P, 0.0001). | Adverse events resulted in discontinuation in 3.4% of alirocumab-treated patients in FH I (vs. 6.1% placebo) and 3.6% (vs. 1.2%) in FH II. Rate of injection site reactions in alirocumab-treated patients was 12.4% in FH I and 11.4% in FH II (vs. 11.0 and 7.4% with placebo). | [80] |
TESLA Part B: randomised, double-blind, placebo-controlled phase 3 trial of subjects with homozygous familial hypercholesterolaemia, randomly allocated to receive subcutaneous evolocumab 420 mg or placebo every 4 weeks for 12 weeks. | 50 eligible patients | Compared with placebo, evolocumab significantly reduced LDL cholesterol at 12 weeks by 30·9% (95% CI −43·9% to −18·0%; p < 0·0001). | Treatment-emergent adverse events occurred in ten (63%) of 16 patients in the placebo group and 12 (36%) of 33 in the evolocumab group. | [81] |
ODYSSEY LONG TERM: randomized trial involving subjects to receive alirocumab (150 mg) or placebo for 78 weeks. | 2341 patients at high risk for cardiovascular events who had LDL cholesterol levels of 70 mg per deciliter or more and were receiving treatment with statins at the maximum tolerated dose | At week 24, the difference between the alirocumab and placebo groups in the mean percentage change from baseline in calculated LDL cholesterol level was −62% (P < 0.001) In a post hoc analysis, the rate of major adverse cardiovascular events was lower with alirocumab than with placebo (1.7% vs. 3.3%; hazard ratio, 0.52; 95% confidence interval, 0.31 to 0.90; nominal P = 0.02). | The alirocumab group, as compared with the placebo group, had higher rates of injection-site reactions (5.9% vs. 4.2%), myalgia (5.4% vs. 2.9%), neurocognitive events (1.2% vs. 0.5%), and ophthalmologic events (2.9% vs. 1.9%). | [82] |
The GAUSS-2 trial: 12-week, double-blind study of randomized patients (2:2:1:1) to evolocumab 140 mg every two weeks (Q2W) or evolocumab 420 mg once monthly (QM) both with daily oral placebo or subcutaneous placebo Q2W or QM both with daily oral ezetimibe 10 mg. | 307 patients | At week 12, evolocumab reduced LDL-C from baseline by 53% to 56%, corresponding to treatment differences versus ezetimibe of 37% to 39% (p < 0.001). | Muscle adverse events occurred in 12% of evolocumab-treated patients and 23% of ezetimibe-treated patients. Treatment-emergent adverse events and laboratory abnormalities were comparable across treatment groups. | [83] |
OSLER Study: two open-label, randomized trials of patients who had completed 1 of 12 phase 2 or 3 studies of evolocumab. | 4465 eligible patients randomly assigned to receive either evolocumab plus standard therapy or standard therapy alone. | As compared with standard therapy alone, evolocumab reduced the level of LDL-C by 61%, from a median of 120 mg per deciliter to 48 mg per deciliter (P < 0.001). The rate of cardiovascular events at 1 year was reduced from 2.18% in the standard-therapy group to 0.95% in the evolocumab group (hazard ratio in the evolocumab group, 0.47; 95% CI, 0.28 to 0.78; P = 0.003). | Neurocognitive events were reported more frequently in the evolocumab group. The risk of adverse events, including neurocognitive events, did not vary significantly according to the achieved level of LDL cholesterol | [84] |
FOURIER study: randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial of patients with atherosclerotic cardiovascular disease and LDL cholesterol levels of 70 mg per deciliter or higher who were receiving statin therapy. The primary efficacy end point was the composite of cardiovascular death, myocardial infarction, stroke, hospitalization for unstable angina, or coronary revascularization | 27,564 patients were randomly assigned to receive evolocumab or matching placebo as subcutaneous injections | At 48 weeks, mean percentage reduction in LDL cholesterol levels with evolocumab, as compared with placebo, was 59% (P < 0.001). Relative to placebo, evolocumab treatment significantly reduced the risk of the primary end point (1344 patients [9.8%] vs. 1563 patients [11.3%]; hazard ratio, 0.85; 95% confidence interval [CI], 0.79 to 0.92; P < 0.001 | No significant difference between the study groups with regard to adverse events (including new-onset diabetes and neurocognitive events), with the exception of injection-site reactions, which were more common with evolocumab (2.1% vs. 1.6%). | [85] |
Drugs for the treatment of hypertriglyceridemia
Fibrates
Fish oil
Drugs | Sample size | Study Design | Reduction of TRG (±SD or IQR) | References |
---|---|---|---|---|
FO vs Fenofibrate vs Gemfibrozil vs Atorvastatin | 76 vs 80 vs 46 vs 291 (HIV-infected). | Observational/ quasi-experimental pre/post design. Median period of observation: 5 months | FO: −45 mg/dl (−80 to −11) Fenofibrates vs FO: −49 mg/dl (−108 to 11) Gemfibrozil vs FO: - 80 mg/dl (−150 to −10) Atorvastatin vs FO: −33 mg/dl (−81 to 15) | [140] |
Fenofibrate | 55 with Lipodystrophy with severe Hypertriglyceridemia (TRG > 500 mg/dl) [HIV-POS] | Observational/Prospective Observation period = 6 months | Mean change:-335 mg/dl | [90] |
FO vs Fenofibrate vs FO + Fenofibrate | 50 vs 50, if no response at week 10 switch to combination therapy; 72 pts. switched. (HIV-infected) | Randomized-Open label Study duration: 18 weeks | FO = 46% vs Fenofibrate (58%) vs FO + Fenofibrate (65%) | [95] |
Fenofibrate vs pravastatin vs Fenofibrate + pravastatin | 88 vs 86, if no response at week 12 switch to combination therapy (most patients switched) [HIV-infected] | Randomized-Open label Study duration: 48 weeks | Median change: −144 mg/dl (−1492 to 927 fenofibrate) vs −66 (−899 to 1567 prevastatin) | [89] |
FO | 41 (HIV-infected) | Randomized-Open label Study duration: 12 weeks | Mean change: 63.2 ± 86.9 mg/dl mg/dl | [92] |
FO | 48 (HIV-infected) | Randomized-placebo-controlled Study duration: 8 weeks | Median decrease: −34 (−149–9.5) mg/dL | [97] |
FO + simvastatin | 254 (uninfected) | Randomized-Open label Study duration: 8 weeks | Mean change: 29% (FO + simvastatin) vs 6% (simvastatin) | [97] |
FO + simvastatin | 59 with Coronary heart disease already on simvastatin (uninfected) | Randomized, Study duration: 24 weeks + 24 weeks | Mean change: 20–30% | [98] |