Carotenoid intake and risk of non-Hodgkin lymphoma: a systematic review and dose-response meta-analysis of observational studies

Carotenoids may play a protective role in the development of non-Hodgkin lymphoma (NHL), but findings from epidemiological studies on the associations between carotenoid intake and NHL risk are inconsistent. We therefore performed a meta-analysis to systemically evaluate the associations. Eligible studies were identified by a search of PubMed, Web of Science, Embase, and article reference lists. We pooled risk estimates from individual studies using a random-effect model to quantify the associations between intakes of specific carotenoids and NHL risk. A total of 10 (7 case-control and 3 cohort) studies met our inclusion criteria. In the highest versus lowest analyses, intakes of alpha-carotene, beta-carotene, and lutein/zeaxanthin, but not lycopene or beta-cryptoxanthin, were associated with a significant reduced risk of NHL. The estimated summary relative risks (95% confidence intervals) for alpha-carotene, beta-carotene, and lutein/zeaxanthin were 0.87 (0.78–0.97), 0.80 (0.68–0.94), and 0.82 (0.69–0.97), respectively. Subgroup analyses showed that evidence supporting these protective associations was mostly based on studies with a case-control design. In addition, intakes of alpha-carotene and beta-carotene were associated with a significant decreased risk of diffuse large B-cell lymphoma, but not follicular lymphoma or small lymphocytic lymphoma/chronic lymphocytic leukemia. There was a significant inverse dose-response relationship between alpha-carotene intake and NHL risk (13% lower risk per 1000 μg/day increment of intake). In conclusion, our findings suggest that higher intakes of alpha-carotene, beta-carotene, and lutein/zeaxanthin might protect against NHL development. Further cohort studies with a control of plausible confounding are needed to confirm these associations.