Antigen-specific and MHCII-restricted CD4+ αβ T cells have been shown or suggested to play an important role in the transition from acute to chronic mechanical allodynia after peripheral nerve injuries. However, it is still largely unknown where these T cells infiltrate along the somatosensory pathways transmitting mechanical allodynia to initiate the development of chronic mechanical allodynia after nerve injuries. In the present study, we provide the first noteworthy evidence that CD4+ αβ T cells selectively infiltrate into the DR leptomeninges of the somatosensory pathways transmitting mechanical allodynia and contribute to the transition of acute mechanical allodynia to a chronic state after peripheral nerve injuries.
The DR leptomeninges as the neuroimmune interface for CD4+ αβ T cells to initiate the development of chronic mechanical allodynia after peripheral nerve injuries
Previous studies from McLachlan et al. [
26‐
28] provided some suggestive evidence that after adult rat SSNL or CCI to the sciatic nerves, αβ T cells robustly infiltrate into the leptomeninges of the SAAs at the transitional zone between the lumbar DRs and DRGs. In our present study, we characterized this potential phenomenon in the mSNI pain model. For the first time, we found that αβ T cells robustly and selectively infiltrate into the leptomeninges across the whole courses of the lumbar DRs in the somatosensory pathways transmitting mechanical allodynia. Moreover, we observed that almost all the αβ T cells there are CD4 positive. To establish the universality of this phenomenon, it should be further characterized after different conditions of peripheral nerve injuries. Even though, we could conclude that antigen-specific and MHC II-restricted CD4+ αβ T cells selectively enter into the DR leptomeninges along the somatosensory pathways for the transmission of mechanical allodynia after peripheral nerve injuries.
The DR meninges are anatomically the lateral extension of spinal meninges and presumably have the same embryonic origin as that of spinal meninges [
37‐
42]. This notion was further supported by histological evidences that the DR meninges potentially have similar immunological elements to those in cerebrospinal meninges [
39‐
42]. There are MHCII-expressing macrophages and dendritic cells, which line on the DR leptomeninges adjacent to the CSF compartments [
39]. In the intervertebral foramens, lymphatic vessels are present in the DR dura mater and epidural tissues [
40]. There is also a rich amount of blood microvessels in the DR leptomeninges [
39‐
42]. For cerebrospinal meninges, this kind of neuroimmune microenvironment has been demonstrated to enable cerebrospinal meninges as the multifaceted neuroimmune interface for T cell interactions with the healthy or stressed CNS [
36]. Given the anatomical, embryonic, and histological similarities, the DR meninges are likely to be functionally similar, if not identical, to cerebrospinal meninges for T cell interactions with the nervous system. Hence, antigen-specific and MHC II-restricted CD4+ αβ T cells selectively present in the DR leptomeninges might have functional roles in the development of chronic mechanical allodynia after peripheral nerve injuries.
We first used prior lymphadenectomy to LLNs for region-specific disruption of CD4+ αβ T cell infiltration into L4 DR leptomeninges after mSNIs. However, prior lymphadenectomy to LLNs might affect other immune cells in the LLNs, such as CD8+ αβ T cells, B cells, NK cells, and macrophages, although CD4+ αβ T cells are supposed to be selectively activated by dendritic cells in LLNs similar with those in the spleens after peripheral nerve injuries. Hence, our lymphadenectomy results can just suggest that CD4+ αβ T cells in the DR leptomeninges should have a role in the development of chronic mechanical allodynia after peripheral nerve injuries. We further employed repeated intrathecal injection of the suppressive anti-αβTCR antibodies during the sub-acute phase after mSNIs, which allowed more direct and specific suppression of CD4+ αβ T cells in lumbar dorsal root leptomeninges after mSNIs [
56,
57]. Our intrathecal injection results provided the first evidence that CD4+ αβ T cells, selectively infiltrating into the L4 DR leptomeninges after mSNIs, contribute to the development of chronic mechanical allodynia after nerve injuries. Moreover, these T cells could have a role in significant activation of glial cells and PKCγ
+ excitatory interneurons in SC-DHs, which underlie the development of chronic mechanical allodynia. Therefore, our results for the first time identified the DR leptomeninges as the new and definite neuroimmune interface for CD4+ αβ T cells to initiate the transition from acute to chronic mechanical allodynia after nerve injuries.
The infiltration of αβ T cells into other areas along the somatosensory pathways specific for mechanical allodynia after peripheral nerve injuries
Antigen-specific αβ T cells have been conclusively found to infiltrate into the injured nerves after CCI or chronic mild compression to the sciatic nerves of adult rat or mice [
11,
21,
22,
24,
25]. While the presence of αβ T cells remains to be examined in the sciatic nerves after SSNL and partial sciatic nerve ligation (PSNL), it seems that αβ T cell infiltration into the injured peripheral nerves should be a general and intrinsic process [
23]. In these three pain models, these αβ T cells might have a role in the development of chronic mechanical allodynia by the sensitization of PSNs transmitting mechanical allodynia, whose peripheral afferent axons are intact and present in partially injured sciatic nerves [
58]. However, this suggestion has not been directly addressed by region-specific targeting of these T cells [
15]. The number of αβ T cells was shown to have no correlation with the levels of mechanical allodynia after adult rat CCI to the sciatic nerve [
25]. This might suggest a dispensable role of αβ T cells in partially injured nerves for chronic transition of mechanical allodynia. This dispensability was further confirmed by our current study using the mSNI pain model. In this model, peripheral afferent axons of PSNs transmitting mechanical allodynia (the sural nerve origin) and axotomized PSNs (the tibial nerve origin) are anatomically separated along the course of the injured tibial nerves. In the present study, our results here showed robust infiltration of αβ T cells into the injured tibial nerves, rather than the intact sural nerves and the glabrous skin tissues innervated by either the sural or the tibial nerves. This excluded the possibility on the spatial scale for αβ T cells to sensitize intact PSNs of the sural nerve origin, which transmit mechanical allodynia [
52,
53]. We further used prior lymphadenectomy to popliteal or sciatic lymph nodes for region-specific targeting of αβ T cells in injured tibial nerves, and our results implied the dispensability of these T cells for the development of chronic mechanical allodynia after mSNIs. Hence, αβ T cells in the injured nerves may be not necessary for the development of chronic mechanical allodynia after peripheral nerve injuries.
Along the somatosensory pathways specific for mechanical allodynia after peripheral nerve injuries, the cell-body-rich areas of DRGs have been suggested as a potential neuroimmune interface for T cells, αβ T cells in particular, to initiate the transition from acute to chronic mechanical allodynia [
17,
21]. Previous studies by other groups indicated that T cells (CD3 positive) are significantly present in these regions after SNI or PSNL in adult male or female C57BL/6 mice [
17,
32,
59]. However, in our present study, 7 days after mSNIs in adult male SD rats, very few, if any, αβ T cells were observed there. This implied that T cells infiltrating into the cell-body-rich areas of DRGs would be largely αβTCR-negative T cells. In contrast, a small number of αβ T cells were found to significantly infiltrate into the cell-body-rich areas of DRGs after CCI or chronic mild compression to the sciatic nerves as well as L5 SSNL in adult rats [
21,
22,
24‐
27]. The obvious variances of antigen-specific αβ T cell infiltration there might be related to the differences of animal genetic backgrounds or immune conditioning during the life histories before nerve injuries [
10,
16,
25‐
27] and the intrinsic distinctions of peripheral nerve injuries [
24,
26‐
28]. However, the presence or absence of αβ T cells [
24] and even the number of αβ T cells in case of significant αβ T cell infiltration [
21,
22] do not correlate with the development of chronic mechanical allodynia. Hence, we can conclude, at least, that the cell-body-rich areas of DRGs are not the necessary neuroimmune interface for antigen-specific αβ T cells to initiate the development of chronic mechanical allodynia after nerve injuries.
The gray matter of SC-DHs have also been viewed as an important neuroimmune interface for T cells, including αβ T cells, to initiate the transition of acute mechanical allodynia to a chronic state after nerve injuries [
12,
13,
16,
18,
27,
29‐
31]. However, growing bodies of evidence doubt the presence of αβ T cells, even T cells there. Firstly, a recent study [
33] reported little, if any, CD2-positive cells (presumably T cells) in the SC-DHs after SNIs in adult rats, with the same experimental settings as those in a previously seminal study [
13] concerning the roles of T cells of the SC-DHs in nerve injury-induced chronic mechanical allodynia. In our present study, we also did not find any convincing evidences for the presence of αβ T cells in the SC-DHs after adult rat mSNIs. Secondly, after L5 SSNL in adult male BALB/C or DBA/2 mice [
12,
18], a small number of CD3-positive T cells (susceptible results per se) were found to significantly infiltrate into the SC-DHs. However, there were no T cells detected in the SC-DHs of adult male C57BL/6 mice with the same nerve injury [
18]. Thirdly, while a very small number of T cells were found to significantly enter into the SC-DHs after PSNL in adult male SD or Wistar rats [
29,
31], there were minimal or no T cell (CD3 positive) infiltration into the SC-DHs after PSNL in adult male C57BL/6 mice [
32,
34,
35]. Finally, after CCI to the sciatic nerves of adult male rats [
21,
22,
27], very low densities of αβ T cells relative to the volume of the SC-DHs were detected in the ipsilateral SC-DHs in statistical sense. Based on these results described above, the great discrepancies of T cell infiltration into the SC-DHs after nerve injuries might be also related to the differences of animal genetic backgrounds or immune conditioning during the life histories [
10,
16,
25‐
27] before nerve injuries and the intrinsic distinctions of peripheral nerve injuries [
24,
26‐
28]. However, chronic mechanical allodynia was still significantly developed in all the conditions of nerve injuries mentioned above. Therefore, it becomes clear, at least, that the SC-DH is not an indispensable neuroimmune interface for T cells, including αβ T cells, to initiate the development of chronic mechanical allodynia after nerve injuries.