Introduction
The past 4 years have seen a rapid expansion in the number of reproducibly associated loci for type 2 diabetes and related traits. However, progress in translating these genetic associations into biological mechanisms for disease has been slow [
1,
2]. Contributing factors have included small effect sizes and the mapping of association signals to poorly annotated, often intergenic, sequences [
3]. Signals that include an obvious (e.g. non-synonymous) variant in a biologically plausible gene provide tractable targets for functional follow-up and a framework for exploring approaches to variant characterisation [
2].
Glucokinase (GCK) regulates glucose storage and disposal in the liver. Hepatic GCK activity is modulated by glucokinase regulatory protein (GKRP; gene symbol
GCKR), a competitive inhibitor of GCK. Fructose 6-phosphate (F6P) and fructose 1-phosphate (F1P) enhance and reduce GKRP-mediated inhibition, respectively [
4,
5]. A further layer of regulation exists in the form of cellular localisation: GKRP sequesters GCK to the nucleus at low glucose concentrations, further inhibiting GCK activity and glycolysis [
6]. At higher glucose concentrations, glucose-mediated dissociation of GCK from GKRP activates GCK and exposes its nuclear export signal [
7,
8].
A common
GCKR single nucleotide polymorphism (SNP) (rs1260326 [c.1337C>T; p.P446L]) has been reproducibly associated with an inverse relationship between glucose and triacylglycerol levels [
9]. This seemingly paradoxical relationship also extends to other glucose- and lipid-related traits. The glucose-lowering leucine allele is also associated with decreased fasting insulin, HOMA-estimated insulin resistance and reduction of type 2 diabetes risk [
10] but increased triacylglycerol and total cholesterol levels [
11]. This variant is one of only a handful of candidate non-synonymous variants identified to date from type 2 diabetes association studies [
2,
12]. We have previously shown that variant P446L-GKRP increases GCK activity as a result of diminished regulation by F6P and have proposed that this results in increased hepatic glycolytic flux and de novo lipogenesis, accounting for the observed associated phenotypes [
12]. Interestingly, this kinetic effect was not seen with rat P446L-GKRP [
13], likely due to species differences in regulation by F6P [
14].
However, kinetic mechanisms alone are not sufficient to explain GKRP regulation of GCK in vivo. For example,
Gckr-knockout mice display impaired postprandial glucose handling and paradoxical reductions in GCK protein levels and activity in spite of the removal of GKRP inhibition [
15,
16]. This suggests that nuclear interaction with GKRP plays an important role in regulating GCK protein concentration and stability and is essential for the maintenance of glucose homeostasis. In addition, the P446L variant is associated with inverse modulation of fasting and 2 h glucose levels, an observation not readily explained by kinetic data [
10]. As the contribution of GKRP and GCK cellular localisation to phenotypes associated with the P446L-GKRP variant protein is currently unexplored, the aims of the current study were to assess the impact of this variant on the ability of GKRP to sequester GCK in the nucleus and to further explore potential differences between rat and human regulatory proteins.
Discussion
To capitalise on recent advances in our understanding of the genetic basis of diabetes risk, it is necessary to translate association signals into detailed molecular mechanisms that may underlie disease predisposition. We have previously shown that P446L-hGKRP, inversely associated with triacylglycerol levels and glucose levels, affects GCK activity in liver through diminished regulation by F6P [
12]. However, the impact of this variant on the cellular localisation of GCK and GKRP has not previously been explored. Recent studies using rat hepatocytes have suggested reliable estimation of GCK localisation can be accomplished by quantification of localisation in multiple fields of cells [
25,
26]. We therefore sought to image a large number of cells using a quantitative method to assess nuclear and cytoplasmic fluorescence, and to combine this with assessment of direct interaction of GKRP and GCK by measuring FRETN. We have demonstrated for the first time differences in the degree of nuclear sequestration of GCK between WT-hGKRP and P446L-hGKRP and in the direct cellular interaction of P446L-hGKRP with GCK compared with WT-hGKRP. In spite of the presence of endogenous mouse GCK and GKRP, we were also able to demonstrate these differences in localisation, sequestration and direct interaction in primary mouse hepatocytes.
In combination with our previously described kinetic studies, the P446L-hGKRP variant protein would be expected to result in an increased pool of active cytoplasmic GCK, particularly in the presence of low (i.e. fasting state) glucose concentrations. Our findings suggest a mechanism of action for P446L-hGKRP consistent with the associated clinical phenotypes [
9‐
11]. The reduced ability of P446L-hGKRP to sequester and interact with GCK in the nucleus in the fasting state would result in increased hepatic glucose disposal, glycolytic flux and generation of precursors for synthesis of molecules such as triacylglycerols and cholesterol. Recent findings associating
GCKR with increased VLDL particle concentrations [
27] suggest this enhancement of glycolytic flux leads to increased levels of de novo triacylglycerol and cholesterol synthesis and export.
Increased fasting-state hepatic glucose uptake, use and disposal by GCK in the presence of P446L-hGKRP would be predicted to decrease circulating plasma glucose concentrations. Further support for this molecular mechanism comes from at least one cellular study linking overexpression of
GCK in liver to reduced glucose levels and raised triacylglycerol levels [
28]. We propose that decreased fasting plasma glucose levels could result in decreased basal insulin output by the pancreas, which could ultimately contribute to higher insulin sensitivity and decreased risk of type 2 diabetes in spite of increased hepatic lipid production.
Our results also suggest that, compared with WT-hGKRP, P446L-hGKRP shows reduced glucose dependence in its cellular interaction with GCK (Fig.
4). Accordingly, in spite of higher fasting-state GCK activity in the presence of P446L-hGKRP, GCK may not be activated to the same extent by increased glucose in the presence of this variant. This provides a mechanistic explanation for the observation that the P446L variant is associated with increased 2 h glucose levels but decreased fasting glucose levels [
10,
29].
Interestingly, the degree of nuclear localisation of rGKRP is significantly reduced compared with WT-hGKRP in both HeLa cells and hepatocytes. Our studies assessing the localisation of transfected rGKRP in mouse hepatocytes (nuclear/cytoplasmic ratio of 3.37 at 5.5 mmol/l glucose) are highly consistent with our observations of endogenous rGKRP in rat hepatocytes (nuclear/cytoplasmic ratio of 3.44 at 5.5 mmol/l glucose; S. Baltrusch, unpublished observations). However, the abnormality in nuclear GCK sequestration for P446L-GKRP appears to be specific to the human regulatory protein as we did not observe a similar phenomenon with rGKRP. This is consistent with previous studies that have established important species-specific differences in both the regulation of human and rat GKRP by F6P and the impact of the P446L variant on this regulation [
12‐
14]. Taking into account our previous assessment of the interaction of rGKRP with human GCK by FRETN analysis in COS-1 cells [
21], direct interaction determined in our experiments in living cells appeared to be strongest between hGKRP and GCK. This is consistent with in vitro studies highlighting hGKRP as a more potent inhibitor of GCK than rGKRP [
14]. These studies serve to emphasise the differences between human and rat regulatory proteins and highlight the need for use of appropriate assays to decipher complex mutational mechanisms driving disease associations.
It has previously been reported that glucose-dependent GCK localisation is highly heterogeneous in rat hepatocytes [
25], thus necessitating careful analysis in living and fixed cells. Our results comparing the glucose dependence of the nuclear/cytoplasmic ratio for human GCK co-transfected with rGKRP in mouse hepatocytes resulted in a ratio at 25 mmol/l that was 63% of the ratio at 5.5 mmol/l glucose. This is consistent with the ratio calculated from the results of Watanabe et al. [
25] analysing endogenous rat GCK (59%) and our previous results measuring the nuclear/cytoplasmic ratio of transfected human GCK in rat hepatocytes (61%) [
17]. Translocation of human GCK in the presence of hGKRP has not been previously explored, but our results suggest there are important differences between the rat and human GKRP translocation systems, and that regulation of translocation in humans will be strongly dependent on the genotype at P446L. Extensive assessment in human hepatocytes of appropriate genotype may provide useful future insight into these questions.
In conclusion, we have demonstrated that the human GCKR P446L variant alters the ability of GKRP to sequester GCK in the nucleus. This observation, coupled with our previous kinetic studies, provides a mechanistic link between a common genetic variant associated with diabetes risk and metabolic traits and glucose and triacylglycerol metabolism.
Acknowledgements
This study was supported by the NIH Division of Intramural Research and NHGRI project number Z01-HG000024 (F.S. Collins). This study was funded in Oxford by the Medical Research Council (81696) and the Wellcome Trust (095101/Z/10/Z). A.L. Gloyn is a Wellcome Trust Senior Research Fellow in Basic and Biomedical Science. This study was funded in Rostock by the German Diabetes Association (DDG).
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