Background
Methods
Study design and participants
Study indicators
Anthropometry
Access to improved water and sanitation
Other variables
Statistical analyses
Results
Stunting and thinness (Table 1)
Ethiopia (n = 1,892) | India (n = 1,919) | Peru (n = 1,999) | Vietnam (n = 1,905) | |||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Mean/% | SD | No. Missinga
| Mean/% | SD | No. Missinga
| Mean/% | SD | No. Missinga
| Mean/% | SD | No. Missinga
| |
Stunting and low BMI | ||||||||||||
Stunted (HAZ < −2) at age ~1y | 40.1 | 48 | 29.9 | 17 | 27.6 | 10 | 19.7 | 3 | ||||
Stunted (HAZ < −2) at age ~5y | 30.7 | 75 | 34.7 | 63 | 32.5 | 93 | 24.3 | 39 | ||||
Stunted (HAZ < −2) at age ~8y | 20.1 | 98 | 28.4 | 78 | 19.9 | 113 | 19.0 | 51 | ||||
Low BMI (zBMI < −2) at age ~1y | 16.1 | 137 | 18.9 | 18 | 1.9 | 11 | 3.8 | 3 | ||||
Low BMI (zBMI < −2) at age ~5y | 8.5 | 75 | 18.9 | 63 | 0.4 | 93 | 3.9 | 39 | ||||
Low BMI (zBMI < −2) at age ~8y | 21.6 | 98 | 27.4 | 78 | 0.9 | 114 | 11.7 | 60 | ||||
Household level water and toilets | ||||||||||||
Improved water at age ~1y | 53.9 | 0 | 75.5 | 0 | 80.7 | 0 | 10.2 | 0 | ||||
Improved water at age ~5y | 82.4 | 70 | 95.0 | 57 | 88.0 | 86 | 83.6 | 29 | ||||
Improved water at age ~8y | 89.0 | 95 | 96.9 | 76 | 92.0 | 105 | 87.5 | 0 | ||||
Improved toilets at age ~1y | 21.3 | 0 | 26.5 | 0 | 77.6 | 0 | 49.2 | 0 | ||||
Improved toilets at age ~5y | 41.1 | 70 | 32.9 | 57 | 85.3 | 86 | 55.0 | 29 | ||||
Improved toilets at age ~8y | 57.0 | 95 | 35.1 | 76 | 91.1 | 105 | 60.6 | 0 | ||||
Child characteristics | ||||||||||||
Age in months at age ~1y | 11.6 | 3.6 | 0 | 11.7 | 3.4 | 0 | 11.5 | 3.5 | 0 | 11.7 | 3.1 | 0 |
Age in months at age ~5y | 61.8 | 3.8 | 72 | 64.2 | 3.8 | 57 | 63.5 | 4.7 | 86 | 63.0 | 3.5 | 29 |
Age in months at age ~8y | 96.9 | 3.9 | 97 | 95.4 | 3.9 | 77 | 94.9 | 3.6 | 105 | 96.5 | 3.5 | 47 |
Child is female | 47.5 | 0 | 46.4 | 0 | 50.2 | 0 | 48.7 | 0 | ||||
Parental characteristics | ||||||||||||
Mother’s height | 158.6 | 6.1 | 223 | 151.6 | 6.0 | 93 | 150.0 | 5.5 | 182 | 152.2 | 5.9 | 51 |
Mother’s completed schooling (grades attained) | 3.0 | 3.9 | 89 | 3.7 | 4.4 | 61 | 7.8 | 4.4 | 101 | 7.0 | 4.0 | 44 |
Father’s completed schooling (grades attained) | 4.9 | 4.3 | 154 | 5.6 | 5.0 | 60 | 9.1 | 3.9 | 145 | 7.7 | 4.0 | 77 |
Mother’s age | 27.4 | 6.3 | 51 | 23.6 | 4.3 | 9 | 26.8 | 6.8 | 15 | 27.1 | 5.7 | 5 |
Household characteristics | ||||||||||||
Household size at age ~1y | 5.7 | 2.2 | 0 | 5.4 | 2.4 | 0 | 5.7 | 2.3 | 0 | 4.9 | 1.8 | 0 |
Household size at age ~5y | 6.0 | 2.1 | 72 | 5.5 | 2.2 | 57 | 5.5 | 2.1 | 86 | 4.6 | 1.5 | 29 |
Household size at age ~8y | 6.2 | 2.0 | 95 | 5.4 | 2.3 | 76 | 5.4 | 1.9 | 105 | 4.6 | 1.5 | 29 |
Changed communities between ages ~1y and ~5y | 14.0 | 72 | 9.8 | 57 | 47.7 | 86 | 15.6 | 29 | ||||
Changed communities between ages ~5y and ~8y | 9.7 | 97 | 2.5 | 77 | 77.4 | 131 | 0.2 | 46 | ||||
Asset index at age ~1y | 0.0 | 1.9 | 1 | 0.0 | 1.9 | 0 | 0.0 | 2.0 | 0 | 0.0 | 2.0 | 0 |
Asset index at age ~5y | 0.0 | 2.1 | 71 | 0.0 | 2.0 | 57 | 0.0 | 2.1 | 86 | 0.0 | 1.9 | 29 |
Asset index at age ~8y | 0.0 | 2.1 | 95 | 0.0 | 1.9 | 76 | 0.0 | 2.0 | 105 | 0.0 | 2.0 | 0 |
Urban residence | 35.7 | 0 | 26.0 | 0 | 66.5 | 0 | 19.9 | 0 | ||||
Other community characteristics | ||||||||||||
Community wealth | 0.0 | 2.6 | 96 | 0.0 | 2.0 | 78 | 0.0 | 2.5 | 132 | 0.0 | 2.2 | 29 |
Community has hospital | 32.6 | 96 | 47.9 | 44 | 35.2 | 0 | 90.0 | 0 | ||||
Community has secondary school | 36.9 | 96 | 44.9 | 44 | 77.9 | 0 | 98.3 | 0 | ||||
Community population | 8,149.2 | 7,265.0 | 96 | 3,103.9 | 3,659.0 | 149 | 4,255.4 | 3,923.9 | 207 | 10,376.1 | 5,834.3 | 0 |
Household access to improved water and sanitation (Table 1)
Ethiopia
Hypothesis 1 (Water, stunting, and thinness, unadjusted)
Unadjusted | Unadjusted | Child Adjusted | Child and Household Adjusted | Child, Household, and Parent Adjusted | Child, Household, Parent, and Community Adjusted | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
n = 1,892 | I | II | III | IV | V | VI |
Stunting at age ~1y | ||||||
Improved water at age ~1y | 0.84** | 0.91 | 1.04 | 1.02 | 1.02 | |
[0.75–0.94] | [0.81–1.01] | [0.92–1.16] | [0.91–1.15] | [0.90–1.15] | ||
Improved toilets at age ~1y | 0.60** | 0.62** | 0.68** | 0.74** | 0.78** | |
[0.50–0.71] | [0.52–0.74] | [0.57–0.81] | [0.62–0.88] | [0.64–0.93] | ||
Stunting at age ~5y | ||||||
Improved water at age ~1y | 0.75** | 0.83** | 0.97 | 0.96 | 0.95 | |
[0.65–0.87] | [0.72–0.95] | [0.84–1.13] | [0.83–1.11] | [0.81–1.10] | ||
Improved water at age ~5y | 0.97 | 1.02 | 1.11 | 1.12 | 1.07 | |
[0.81–1.16] | [0.85–1.21] | [0.93–1.32] | [0.94–1.32] | [0.90–1.28] | ||
Improved toilets at age ~1y | 0.46** | 0.49** | 0.56** | 0.61** | 0.56** | |
[0.36–0.59] | [0.38–0.62] | [0.44–0.71] | [0.48–0.77] | [0.43–0.71] | ||
Improved toilets at age ~5y | 0.95 | 0.95 | 0.94 | 0.98 | 0.98 | |
[0.82–1.10] | [0.82–1.10] | [0.81–1.09] | [0.85–1.13] | [0.84–1.13] | ||
Stunting at age ~8y | ||||||
Improved water at age ~1y | 0.74** | 0.83 | 1 | 0.99 | 0.97 | |
[0.61–0.89] | [0.68–1.01] | [0.82–1.22] | [0.81–1.21] | [0.79–1.20] | ||
Improved water at age ~5y | 0.83 | 0.85 | 0.93 | 0.93 | 0.92 | |
[0.66–1.06] | [0.67–1.08] | [0.74–1.17] | [0.73–1.18] | [0.72–1.16] | ||
Improved water at age ~8y | 0.83 | 0.82 | 0.91 | 0.91 | 0.91 | |
[0.63–1.10] | [0.63–1.08] | [0.69–1.20] | [0.69–1.20] | [0.69–1.20] | ||
Improved toilets at age ~1y | 0.49** | 0.54** | 0.64** | 0.68** | 0.64** | |
[0.36–0.67] | [0.40–0.74] | [0.48–0.87] | [0.50–0.92] | [0.47–0.87] | ||
Improved toilets at age ~5y | 1.01 | 1.04 | 1.07 | 1.1 | 1.13 | |
[0.82–1.23] | [0.85–1.27] | [0.88–1.30] | [0.91–1.33] | [0.93–1.38] | ||
Improved toilets at age ~8y | 1.16 | 1.11 | 0.99 | 1.02 | 1.02 | |
[0.96–1.41] | [0.91–1.35] | [0.81–1.21] | [0.84–1.25] | [0.83–1.27] | ||
Thinness at age ~1y | ||||||
Improved water at age ~1y | 0.68** | 0.72** | 1.02 | 1 | 1.02 | |
[0.55–0.85] | [0.58–0.90] | [0.81–1.28] | [0.79–1.25] | [0.81–1.29] | ||
Improved toilets at age ~1y | 0.67** | 0.74* | 0.94 | 0.99 | 0.92 | |
[0.50–0.90] | [0.54–0.99] | [0.69–1.27] | [0.73–1.34] | [0.67–1.24] | ||
Thinness at age ~5y | ||||||
Improved water at age ~1y | 1.1 | 1.02 | 1.08 | 1.07 | 1.07 | |
[0.80–1.51] | [0.74–1.42] | [0.77–1.51] | [0.76–1.51] | [0.74–1.53] | ||
Improved water at age ~5y | 0.55** | 0.55** | 0.56** | 0.57** | 0.57** | |
[0.39–0.79] | [0.38–0.78] | [0.39–0.80] | [0.39–0.81] | [0.39–0.82] | ||
Improved toilets at age ~1y | 1.33 | 1.42 | 1.46* | 1.46* | 1.56** | |
[0.94–1.90] | [0.99–2.04] | [1.01–2.12] | [1.00–2.14] | [1.05–2.32] | ||
Improved toilets at age ~5y | 0.91 | 0.98 | 0.97 | 0.96 | 1 | |
[0.66–1.26] | [0.71–1.35] | [0.70–1.35] | [0.69–1.34] | [0.70–1.41] | ||
Thinness at age ~8y | ||||||
Improved water at age ~1y | 0.9 | 0.9 | 1.02 | 1.03 | 1 | |
[0.75–1.09] | [0.74–1.10] | [0.84–1.25] | [0.84–1.26] | [0.82–1.23] | ||
Improved water at age ~5y | 0.87 | 0.89 | 0.94 | 0.94 | 0.94 | |
[0.68–1.10] | [0.70–1.12] | [0.75–1.19] | [0.75–1.19] | [0.74–1.20] | ||
Improved water at age ~8y | 0.83 | 0.85 | 0.91 | 0.93 | 0.94 | |
[0.63–1.10] | [0.64–1.12] | [0.69–1.21] | [0.70–1.22] | [0.71–1.25] | ||
Improved toilets at age ~1y | 0.94 | 0.99 | 1.09 | 1.13 | 1.2 | |
[0.75–1.19] | [0.78–1.26] | [0.86–1.39] | [0.89–1.44] | [0.94–1.54] | ||
Improved toilets at age ~5y | 0.85 | 0.88 | 0.9 | 0.92 | 0.96 | |
[0.70–1.03] | [0.72–1.07] | [0.75–1.10] | [0.76–1.12] | [0.79–1.18] | ||
Improved toilets at age ~8y | 0.97 | 0.94 | 0.89 | 0.9 | 0.95 | |
[0.80–1.16] | [0.78–1.14] | [0.73–1.08] | [0.74–1.09] | [0.78–1.17] |
Hypothesis 2 (Toilets, stunting, and thinness, unadjusted)
Hypothesis 3 (Adjustment for covariates)
Hypothesis 4 (Infancy versus older ages)
India
Hypothesis 1 (Water, stunting, and thinness, unadjusted)
Unadjusted | Unadjusted | Child Adjusted | Child and Household Adjusted | Child, Household, and Parent Adjusted | Child, Household, Parent, and Community Adjusted | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
n = 1,919 | I | II | III | IV | V | VI |
Stunting at age ~1y | ||||||
Improved water at age ~1y | 1.00 | 0.97 | 1.01 | 1.01 | 1.04 | |
[0.85–1.17] | [0.83–1.14] | [0.87–1.18] | [0.87–1.18] | [0.89–1.23] | ||
Improved toilets at age ~1y | 0.59** | 0.58** | 1 | 1.05 | 0.96 | |
[0.49–0.71] | [0.48–0.71] | [0.79–1.26] | [0.83–1.33] | [0.72–1.30] | ||
Stunting at age ~5y | ||||||
Improved water at age ~1y | 1.24** | 1.22* | 1.21* | 1.22** | 1.18** | |
[1.06–1.45] | [1.04–1.42] | [1.04–1.41] | [1.05–1.42] | [1.01–1.39] | ||
Improved water at age ~5y | 0.70** | 0.77* | 0.84 | 0.87 | 0.84 | |
[0.55–0.87] | [0.61–0.96] | [0.67–1.05] | [0.70–1.08] | [0.68–1.05] | ||
Improved toilets at age ~1y | 0.56** | 0.56** | 0.68** | 0.72** | 0.76* | |
[0.44–0.71] | [0.44–0.71] | [0.54–0.87] | [0.57–0.91] | [0.57–1.02] | ||
Improved toilets at age ~5y | 0.83 | 0.84 | 1.04 | 1.07 | 1.08 | |
[0.69–1.01] | [0.69–1.01] | [0.86–1.27] | [0.88–1.29] | [0.88–1.32] | ||
Stunting at age ~8y | ||||||
Improved water at age ~1y | 1.16 | 1.15 | 1.13 | 1.14 | 1.09 | |
[0.97–1.39] | [0.97–1.37] | [0.95–1.34] | [0.96–1.36] | [0.91–1.32] | ||
Improved water at age ~5y | 0.72* | 0.82 | 0.89 | 0.92 | 0.93 | |
[0.53–0.96] | [0.62–1.09] | [0.68–1.18] | [0.70–1.20] | [0.71–1.23] | ||
Improved water at age ~8y | 0.86 | 0.91 | 1 | 0.99 | 0.98 | |
[0.59–1.27] | [0.63–1.32] | [0.69–1.44] | [0.69–1.42] | [0.68–1.40] | ||
Improved toilets at age ~1y | 0.60** | 0.60** | 0.66** | 0.72** | 0.83 | |
[0.44–0.81] | [0.44–0.82] | [0.48–0.90] | [0.52–0.98] | [0.59–1.16] | ||
Improved toilets at age ~5y | 0.87 | 0.88 | 0.98 | 1.02 | 1.05 | |
[0.67–1.13] | [0.68–1.14] | [0.76–1.27] | [0.79–1.31] | [0.81–1.37] | ||
Improved toilets at age ~8y | 0.69** | 0.69** | 0.83 | 0.84 | 0.88 | |
[0.54–0.88] | [0.54–0.87] | [0.64–1.07] | [0.65–1.09] | [0.67–1.14] | ||
Thinness at age ~1y | ||||||
Improved water at age ~1y | 1.63** | 1.59** | 1.60** | 1.60** | 1.42** | |
[1.26–2.11] | [1.23–2.05] | [1.24–2.07] | [1.24–2.07] | [1.08–1.87] | ||
Improved toilets at age ~1y | 0.79* | 0.78* | 0.86 | 0.85 | 1.13 | |
[0.63–0.99] | [0.63–0.98] | [0.64–1.17] | [0.62–1.16] | [0.76–1.68] | ||
Thinness at age ~5y | ||||||
Improved water at age ~1y | 1.04 | 1.06 | 1.05 | 1.06 | 1.05 | |
[0.83–1.29] | [0.85–1.32] | [0.85–1.32] | [0.85–1.33] | [0.83–1.33] | ||
Improved water at age ~5y | 0.98 | 0.95 | 0.96 | 0.95 | 0.95 | |
[0.64–1.49] | [0.63–1.45] | [0.63–1.47] | [0.63–1.45] | [0.61–1.47] | ||
Improved toilets at age ~1y | 1.12 | 1.13 | 1.16 | 1.15 | 1.23 | |
[0.84–1.51] | [0.85–1.51] | [0.86–1.57] | [0.85–1.56] | [0.84–1.82] | ||
Improved toilets at age ~5y | 0.95 | 0.95 | 0.99 | 0.99 | 0.99 | |
[0.72–1.26] | [0.73–1.25] | [0.74–1.33] | [0.74–1.34] | [0.74–1.33] | ||
Thinness at age ~8y | ||||||
Improved water at age ~1y | 0.98 | 0.99 | 0.97 | 0.98 | 1.01 | |
[0.83–1.17] | [0.83–1.17] | [0.82–1.16] | [0.82–1.16] | [0.84–1.21] | ||
Improved water at age ~5y | 0.96 | 1.05 | 1.08 | 1.07 | 1.04 | |
[0.67–1.40] | [0.72–1.51] | [0.75–1.56] | [0.74–1.55] | [0.72–1.51] | ||
Improved water at age ~8y | 1.76 | 1.85 | 1.91 | 1.88* | 1.85* | |
[0.92–3.40] | [0.96–3.55] | [1.00–3.67] | [0.98–3.60] | [0.97–3.53] | ||
Improved toilets at age ~1y | 0.89 | 0.89 | 0.92 | 0.94 | 0.98 | |
[0.68–1.16] | [0.68–1.16] | [0.70–1.20] | [0.72–1.23] | [0.71–1.35] | ||
Improved toilets at age ~5y | 0.91 | 0.89 | 0.94 | 0.97 | 0.98 | |
[0.70–1.18] | [0.69–1.16] | [0.72–1.22] | [0.74–1.26] | [0.74–1.30] | ||
Improved toilets at age ~8y | 0.84 | 0.83 | 0.88 | 0.91 | 0.92 | |
[0.67–1.06] | [0.65–1.04] | [0.69–1.13] | [0.71–1.17] | [0.72–1.18] |
Hypothesis 2 (Toilets, stunting, and thinness, unadjusted)
Hypothesis 3 (Adjustment for covariates)
Hypothesis 4 (Infancy versus older ages)
Peru
Hypothesis 1 (Water, stunting, and thinness, unadjusted)
Unadjusted | Unadjusted | Child Adjusted | Child and Household Adjusted | Child, Household, and Parent Adjusted | Child, Household, Parent, and Community Adjusted | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
n = 1,999 | I | II | III | IV | V | VI |
Stunting at age ~1y | ||||||
Improved water at age ~1y | 0.74** | 0.88 | 1.1 | 1.08 | 1.06 | |
[0.63–0.87] | [0.74–1.04] | [0.94–1.29] | [0.93–1.26] | [0.90–1.24] | ||
Improved toilets at age ~1y | 0.62** | 0.65** | 0.88 | 0.91 | 0.93 | |
[0.53–0.72] | [0.56–0.76] | [0.76–1.02] | [0.79–1.06] | [0.80–1.07] | ||
Stunting at age ~5y | ||||||
Improved water at age ~1y | 0.80** | 0.95 | 1.09 | 1.08 | 1.08 | |
[0.69–0.93] | [0.82–1.11] | [0.94–1.26] | [0.94–1.24] | [0.94–1.24] | ||
Improved water at age ~5y | 0.63** | 0.74** | 0.93 | 0.94 | 0.93 | |
[0.53–0.74] | [0.63–0.87] | [0.80–1.08] | [0.81–1.09] | [0.81–1.07] | ||
Improved toilets at age ~1y | 0.62** | 0.71** | 0.84* | 0.90* | 0.93 | |
[0.54–0.72] | [0.61–0.82] | [0.73–0.96] | [0.79–1.02] | [0.81–1.05] | ||
Improved toilets at age ~5y | 0.71** | 0.77** | 0.92 | 0.91 | 0.9 | |
[0.61–0.83] | [0.66–0.90] | [0.79–1.06] | [0.79–1.05] | [0.78–1.04] | ||
Stunting at age ~8y | ||||||
Improved water at age ~1y | 0.77* | 0.91 | 1.03 | 1.06 | 1.08 | |
[0.62–0.96] | [0.72–1.15] | [0.83–1.29] | [0.86–1.30] | [0.87–1.33] | ||
Improved water at age ~5y | 0.77 | 0.85 | 1.02 | 1.07 | 1.09 | |
[0.59–1.01] | [0.65–1.12] | [0.79–1.32] | [0.84–1.37] | [0.85–1.40] | ||
Improved water at age ~8y | 0.65** | 0.71* | 1 | 0.88 | 0.87 | |
[0.49–0.86] | [0.53–0.94] | [0.76–1.32] | [0.68–1.16] | [0.66–1.14] | ||
Improved toilets at age ~1y | 0.63** | 0.66** | 0.84 | 0.91 | 0.93 | |
[0.51–0.77] | [0.52–0.82] | [0.68–1.03] | [0.75–1.12] | [0.76–1.15] | ||
Improved toilets at age ~5y | 0.68** | 0.72** | 0.89 | 0.9 | 0.88 | |
[0.54–0.86] | [0.57–0.92] | [0.72–1.11] | [0.72–1.12] | [0.71–1.09] | ||
Improved toilets at age ~8y | 0.83 | 0.91 | 0.93 | 0.89 | 0.88 | |
[0.64–1.09] | [0.70–1.19] | [0.71–1.21] | [0.69–1.14] | [0.69–1.13] | ||
Thinness at age ~1y | ||||||
Improved water at age ~1y | 0.67 | 0.75 | 0.92 | 0.93 | 0.88 | |
[0.33–1.37] | [0.33–1.68] | [0.42–2.02] | [0.42–2.05] | [0.39–1.99] | ||
Improved toilets at age ~1y | 0.62 | 0.75 | 0.92 | 0.93 | 0.88 | |
[0.32–1.23] | [0.33–1.68] | [0.42–2.02] | [0.42–2.05] | [0.39–1.99] | ||
Thinness at age ~5y | ||||||
Improved water at age ~1y | 1.82 | 1.81 | 1.88 | 1.94 | 1.83 | |
[0.15–21.96] | [0.11–29.12] | [0.12–29.55] | [0.12–32.45] | [0.12–28.60] | ||
Improved water at age ~5y | 0.74 | 0.55 | 0.66 | 0.71 | 0.7 | |
[0.06–8.85] | [0.02–12.29] | [0.03–13.81] | [0.03–14.89] | [0.04–13.53] | ||
Improved toilets at age ~1y | 1.14 | 0.97 | 1.08 | 1.02 | 0.91 | |
[0.10–12.64] | [0.11–8.29] | [0.13–9.26] | [0.12–8.55] | [0.13–6.14] | ||
Improved toilets at age ~5y | 494.61 | 681.99 | 881.43 | 854.18 | 1,079.33 | |
[0.00–6.15e + 09] | [0.00–1.19e + 10] | [0.00–2.49e + 10] | [0.00–1.81e + 10] | [0.00–3.54e + 10] | ||
Thinness at age ~8y | ||||||
Improved water at age ~1y | 0.87 | 1.02 | 1.05 | 0.99 | 0.99 | |
[0.26–2.93] | [0.26–3.99] | [0.27–4.08] | [0.25–3.92] | [0.18–5.43] | ||
Improved water at age ~5y | 0.58 | 0.6 | 0.61 | 0.59 | 0.56 | |
[0.16–2.07] | [0.18–1.98] | [0.18–2.10] | [0.18–1.95] | [0.13–2.53] | ||
Improved water at age ~8y | 1.82 | 1.8 | 1.91 | 2.02 | 2.09 | |
[0.24–13.87] | [0.23–14.22] | [0.24–15.41] | [0.24–17.04] | [0.15–28.56] | ||
Improved toilets at age ~1y | 0.67 | 0.67 | 0.69 | 0.63 | 0.52 | |
[0.22–2.06] | [0.19–2.37] | [0.18–2.64] | [0.16–2.55] | [0.09–2.94] | ||
Improved toilets at age ~5y | 0.78 | 0.86 | 0.89 | 0.89 | 0.86 | |
[0.21–2.88] | [0.25–2.94] | [0.26–3.00] | [0.26–3.12] | [0.19–3.94] | ||
Improved toilets at age ~8y | 1.45 | 1.31 | 1.32 | 1.38 | 1.56 | |
[0.22–9.72] | [0.19–8.95] | [0.20–8.94] | [0.21–9.29] | [0.15–16.12] |
Hypothesis 2 (Toilets, stunting, and thinness, unadjusted)
Hypothesis 3 (Adjustment for covariates)
Hypothesis 4 (Infancy versus older ages)
Vietnam
Hypothesis 1 (Water, stunting, and thinness, unadjusted)
Unadjusted | Unadjusted | Child Adjusted | Child and Household Adjusted | Child, Household, and Parent Adjusted | Child, Household, Parent, and Community Adjusted | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
n = 1,905 | I | II | III | IV | V | VI |
Stunting at age ~1y | ||||||
Improved water at age ~1y | 0.22** | 0.26** | 0.52 | 0.48** | 0.57 | |
[0.11–0.41] | [0.14–0.50] | [0.26–1.01] | [0.25–0.93] | [0.27–1.20] | ||
Improved toilets at age ~1y | 0.61** | 0.71** | 1.06 | 1.12 | 1.12 | |
[0.50–0.74] | [0.59–0.86] | [0.86–1.31] | [0.90–1.40] | [0.90–1.39] | ||
Stunting at age ~5y | ||||||
Improved water at age ~1y | 0.20** | 0.23** | 0.30** | 0.34** | 0.54 | |
[0.10–0.38] | [0.12–0.44] | [0.15–0.58] | [0.18–0.65] | [0.25–1.17] | ||
Improved water at age ~5y | 0.76** | 0.93 | 1.14 | 1.14 | 1.13 | |
[0.63–0.92] | [0.76–1.13] | [0.94–1.39] | [0.95–1.37] | [0.94–1.36] | ||
Improved toilets at age ~1y | 0.80* | 0.93 | 1.03 | 1.17 | 1.19 | |
[0.65–0.99] | [0.75–1.14] | [0.84–1.27] | [0.94–1.45] | [0.96–1.47] | ||
Improved toilets at age ~5y | 0.66** | 0.73** | 0.94 | 0.99 | 1.04 | |
[0.54–0.82] | [0.60–0.90] | [0.75–1.17] | [0.79–1.23] | [0.83–1.30] | ||
Stunting at age ~8y | ||||||
Improved water at age ~1y | 0.21** | 0.30** | 0.31** | 0.38** | 0.59 | |
[0.10–0.44] | [0.14–0.65] | [0.14–0.66] | [0.18–0.80] | [0.25–1.42] | ||
Improved water at age ~5y | 0.77* | 0.97 | 0.99 | 1 | 1.05 | |
[0.60–0.98] | [0.76–1.24] | [0.79–1.24] | [0.80–1.24] | [0.84–1.32] | ||
Improved water at age ~8y | 0.60** | 0.71** | 0.95 | 0.9 | 0.87 | |
[0.46–0.77] | [0.55–0.91] | [0.73–1.23] | [0.69–1.16] | [0.66–1.14] | ||
Improved toilets at age ~1y | 0.72* | 0.81 | 0.81 | 0.91 | 0.91 | |
[0.55–0.95] | [0.62–1.05] | [0.63–1.05] | [0.70–1.18] | [0.70–1.18] | ||
Improved toilets at age ~5y | 0.58** | 0.62** | 0.65** | 0.67** | 0.68** | |
[0.44–0.77] | [0.48–0.82] | [0.50–0.85] | [0.51–0.88] | [0.52–0.89] | ||
Improved toilets at age ~8y | 0.76* | 0.83 | 1.05 | 1.13 | 1.17 | |
[0.60–0.97] | [0.65–1.06] | [0.82–1.36] | [0.87–1.47] | [0.91–1.51] | ||
Thinness at age ~1y | ||||||
Improved water at age ~1y | 0.78 | 1.26 | 0.98 | 0.99 | 1.48 | |
[0.34–1.78] | [0.50–3.14] | [0.36–2.63] | [0.38–2.55] | [0.43–5.05] | ||
Improved toilets at age ~1y | 0.47** | 0.45** | 0.40** | 0.50** | 0.55** | |
[0.29–0.77] | [0.26–0.77] | [0.23–0.70] | [0.28–0.88] | [0.31–0.99] | ||
Thinness at age ~5y | ||||||
Improved water at age ~1y | 0.27 | 0.41 | 0.43 | 0.39 | 0.64 | |
[0.07–1.08] | [0.10–1.72] | [0.10–1.80] | [0.09–1.64] | [0.12–3.42] | ||
Improved water at age ~5y | 0.79 | 1.01 | 1.05 | 1.05 | 1.06 | |
[0.45–1.40] | [0.56–1.82] | [0.56–1.97] | [0.55–1.99] | [0.54–2.09] | ||
Improved toilets at age ~1y | 0.49* | 0.54 | 0.55 | 0.55* | 0.53** | |
[0.26–0.93] | [0.29–1.01] | [0.29–1.04] | [0.29–1.05] | [0.28–0.98] | ||
Improved toilets at age ~5y | 0.77 | 0.81 | 0.84 | 0.82 | 0.77 | |
[0.43–1.39] | [0.46–1.43] | [0.46–1.55] | [0.44–1.50] | [0.42–1.43] | ||
Thinness at age ~8y | ||||||
Improved water at age ~1y | 0.21** | 0.25** | 0.25** | 0.25** | 0.28** | |
[0.09–0.51] | [0.10–0.60] | [0.10–0.61] | [0.10–0.63] | [0.08–0.91] | ||
Improved water at age ~5y | 0.8 | 0.91 | 0.92 | 0.93 | 0.95 | |
[0.56–1.15] | [0.63–1.32] | [0.64–1.34] | [0.64–1.34] | [0.59–1.51] | ||
Improved water at age ~8y | 1.47 | 1.59 | 1.66* | 1.70** | 1.58 | |
[0.90–2.40] | [0.98–2.58] | [1.02–2.70] | [1.04–2.77] | [0.85–2.96] | ||
Improved toilets at age ~1y | 0.98 | 1.07 | 1.08 | 1.14 | 1.11 | |
[0.70–1.36] | [0.78–1.48] | [0.79–1.48] | [0.82–1.57] | [0.75–1.63] | ||
Improved toilets at age ~5y | 0.72 | 0.75 | 0.76 | 0.78 | 0.74 | |
[0.50–1.05] | [0.52–1.08] | [0.53–1.09] | [0.53–1.14] | [0.47–1.16] | ||
Improved toilets at age ~8y | 0.85 | 0.82 | 0.85 | 0.88 | 0.88 | |
[0.60–1.21] | [0.58–1.16] | [0.59–1.21] | [0.61–1.26] | [0.57–1.37] |
Hypothesis 2 (Toilets, stunting, and thinness, unadjusted)
Hypothesis 3 (Adjustment for covariates)
Hypothesis 4 (Infancy versus older ages)
Summary | Country | ||||||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Possible Associations | Total Significant Associations | Total Significant Associations, Expected Direction | Total Significant Associations | Total Significant Associations, Expected Direction | Total Significant Associations, Expected Direction (Unadjusted) | Total Significant Associations, Expected Direction (Adjusted) | |||||||
Unadjusted | Unadjusted | Adjusted | Adjusted | Ethiopia | India | Peru | Vietnam | Ethiopia | India | Peru | Vietnam | ||
STUNTING | |||||||||||||
Improved water (age ~1y) | 12 | 10 | 9 | 1 | 0 | 3 | 0 | 3 | 3 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 |
Improved water (age ~5y) | 8 | 5 | 5 | 1 | 1 | 0 | 2 | 1 | 2 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 1 |
Improved water (age ~8y) | 4 | 2 | 2 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 1 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 |
Total water (all rounds) | 24 | 16 | 16 | 4 | 4 | 3 | 2 | 5 | 6 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 4 |
Improved toilet (age ~1y) | 12 | 12 | 12 | 5 | 5 | 3 | 3 | 3 | 3 | 3 | 2 | 0 | 0 |
Improved toilet (age ~5y) | 8 | 5 | 4 | 1 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 2 | 2 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 1 |
Improved toilet (age ~8y) | 4 | 2 | 2 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 1 | 0 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 |
Total toilet (all rounds) | 24 | 19 | 18 | 6 | 6 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 | 3 | 2 | 0 | 1 |
LOW BMI | |||||||||||||
Improved water (age ~1y | 12 | 3 | 2 | 2 | 1 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 1 |
Improved water (age ~5y) | 8 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 0 |
Improved water (age ~8y) | 4 | 0 | 0 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 |
Total water (all rounds) | 24 | 5 | 3 | 2 | 1 | 2 | 0 | 0 | 1 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 1 |
Improved toilet (age ~1y) | 12 | 4 | 4 | 2 | 2 | 1 | 1 | 0 | 2 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 2 |
Improved toilet (age ~5y) | 8 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 |
Improved toilet (age ~8y) | 4 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 |
Total toilet (all rounds) | 24 | 4 | 4 | 2 | 2 | 1 | 1 | 0 | 2 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 2 |