Background
Patients with resectable advanced staged oropharyngeal squamous cell carcinoma (OPSCC) are often treated with chemoradiation (CRT) in order to preserve organ function and quality of life. Low residual and recurrent tumour rates indicate that CRT is an adequate treatment option [
1]. Still, thorough follow-up is warranted to detect residual tumour, which can be successfully treated with salvage surgery if detected early. Previous research has shown that early detection of residual tumour is associated with more favourable survival probabilities and better local control [
1,
2]. Thus, timely detection of residual tumour is essential.
A Dutch survey showed that there is considerable variation in response evaluation after CRT, especially in the diagnostic tests performed [
3]. Tests that are used are examination under general anesthesia with taking of biopsies (EUA), computed tomography (CT), magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) and
18F–fluorodeoxy-glucose positron emission tomography combined with CT (
18F–FDG-PET-CT). EUA is considered to be the most reliable procedure to detect residual disease but is an invasive procedure during which biopsies are taken in areas treated with CRT. Besides the risk of side-effects such as pain, inflammation and wound healing problems, there is also the possibility of sampling error leading to false-negative results [
1]. Furthermore, EUA has considerable impact on scarce resources because hospital stay and operating facilities are required.
In contrast to EUA, imaging tests are not invasive. However, conventional CT and MRI may not be suitable because postradiation effects, e.g. fibrosis and necrosis [
4], may hamper accurate interpretation of the images. More advanced tests such as
18F–FDG-PET-CT and diffusion-weighted MRI (DW-MRI) may be more suitable options. These tests do not only assess if any anatomical residual mass is present, but also determine the metabolic activity and cell density, respectively, of the tumour.
PET-CT and DW-MRI cannot completely replace EUA because pathological confirmation is required before further treatment. Nevertheless, they could be used to select those patients with a high risk of residual disease for further diagnostic workup with EUA. This would reduce the number of patients that have to undergo futile invasive diagnostic procedures. Furthermore, the imaging results provide the opportunity to guide biopsy procedures, thereby possibly reducing sampling error. Besides these advantages for patients, imaging to select patients for EUA might also lead to cost reductions. Therefore, this study aimed to assess the effects and costs of four response evaluation strategies to detect local residual disease, namely EUA for all patients, PET-CT-based selection for EUA, DW-MRI-based selection for EUA and a combination of PET-CT and DW-MRI to select for EUA. All analyses were conducted using a decision-analytic model based on trial data of forty-six patients and scientific literature.
Discussion
This study explored the cost-effectiveness of four strategies used for response evaluation to detect local residual disease after CRT in patients with advanced staged OPSCC. In the EUA strategy, i.e. the reference strategy, 96% of patients were correctly diagnosed. Expected costs were 468 Euros at the expense of 89% unnecessary EUA indications. The DW-MRI strategy was with 297 Euros the least costly strategy. However, this strategy also led to the lowest proportion of correct diagnoses, i.e. 93%. The PET-CT strategy and the combined PET-CT and DW-MRI strategy were dominated by the EUA strategy due to a smaller or equal proportion of correct diagnoses, at higher costs. All imaging strategies considerably reduced the number of EUA indications and unnecessary EUA indications compared to the EUA strategy.
Based on our model results, the combined PET-CT and DW-MRI strategy is preferred over the EUA strategy. This strategy has the same diagnostic accuracy as immediate EUA while considerably reducing the number of EUA indications as well as unnecessary EUA indications. On the other hand, the combined imaging strategy costs an additional 927 Euros. However, only around 220 patients are diagnosed each year with advanced OPSCC in the Netherlands [
10]. Thus, these additional costs are negligible on a society level. Furthermore, if all 220 patients were evaluated based on the combined imaging strategy, only 38 EUAs are indicated of which 14 would be unnecessary. When the EUA strategy would be used for response evaluation, 220 EUAs are indicated of which 196 would be unnecessary.
When healthcare resources are limited, our study suggests that DW-MRI prior to EUA is the strategy of choice. This strategy is less costly than both the combined PET-CT and DW-MRI strategy and EUA strategy. Furthermore, it has a lower impact on scarce resources such as hospital stay compared to immediate EUA. Moreover, fewer patients are exposed to invasive EUA and of the EUA indications, a lower proportion is unnecessary. However, the proportion of correct diagnoses is lower than in the EUA strategy. This difference is caused by a higher proportion of false-negative test results meaning that residual tumour is missed.
Besides decreasing the number of unnecessary EUA indications, another possible advantage of imaging is that the results of the imaging test can be used to guide the biopsy taking. This may increase the sensitivity of EUA. As the surgeons in the trial were not blinded to the imaging results, it may be possible that the sensitivity of EUA without prior imaging is overestimated. We assessed the impact of this in sensitivity analyses by assuming a 10% lower sensitivity in the EUA strategy. This changed the ordering of the strategies; the combined PET-CT and DW-MRI strategy became the strategy with most correct diagnoses. Nevertheless, EUA detected only 60% of the residual tumours, questioning the degree of bias.
The test characteristics of PET-CT and DW-MRI were based on a trial in which all patients received PET-CT, DW-MRI and EUA 3 months after CRT. Timing is an important determinant of these test characteristics. If the test is conducted too soon after treatment, post-radiation effects can lead to a false-positive test. Also false-negative test results are possible because tumour cells have not yet reached a detectable size. On the other hand, early diagnosis of residual disease increases treatment success of salvage surgery [
11]. A study indicated that DW-MRI may be used for response evaluation 3 weeks after CRT [
12]. The optimal timing of imaging has still to be determined, which might influence test characteristics.
Furthermore, DW-MRI is a relative new imaging technique within oncological applications and therefore, little experience is gained with DW-MRI in the post-treatment evaluation so far. Besides, DW-imaging is susceptible to artefacts, particularly in the inhomogeneous head and neck area which contains a variety of tissues. Also, geometrical distortions due to interfaces between soft tissue and air or bone can occur. Although DW-MRI is not yet an established technique for response evaluation, this early assessment of the expected health effects and costs provides more insight in the potential of DW-MRI as a response evaluation strategy. We showed that DW-MRI is the strategy of choice when combined with PET-CT. However, a response evaluation strategy solely based on DW-MRI followed by EUA in individuals with a positive imaging test is only preferred in settings with limited health care resources. Nevertheless, radiologists are still in the learning curve concerning post-treatment evaluation of DW-MRI. With more training and feedback, DW-MRI is expected to obtain a higher accuracy. The impact of increased sensitivity was assessed in sensitivity analyses, but conclusions did not change.
Another emerging technique for response evaluation is PET-MRI. This technique combines the often complementary data from PET and MRI and could lead to improved anatomic localisation of focal uptake compared to PET-CT [
13]. This could potentially decrease the number of false-positive test outcomes and as a consequence, reduce the number of unnecessary EUA indications.
The trial included only 46 patients of whom five were diagnosed with residual disease. Due to this small sample size, there was a fair amount of uncertainty regarding test characteristics and the prevalence of residual disease. Repeating the base-case analysis using test characteristics derived from the literature did not change our conclusion. Furthermore, our residual primary tumour rate of 11% was in agreement with the results of Moeller et al. (2009) [
14]. On the other hand, Van den Broek et al. (2006) reported a residual primary tumour rate of 7% [
1]. We have addressed this issue by varying the prevalence of residual disease in one-way sensitivity analyses. However, the ordering of the strategies based on correct diagnoses, costs and unnecessary EUA indications did not change.
In this cohort of patients, the residual primary tumour rate was only 11%. To improve the yield of routine response evaluation, only patients with high risk factors should undergo this diagnostic procedure. Risk factors which can be used to select patients include T-stage [
15], HPV (human papilloma virus) status [
16,
17] and pre-treatment metabolic tumour volume [
18].
We did not differentiate between HPV-related and HPV-unrelated tumours. For HPV-related tumours, a lower residual disease rate is observed which is probably due to higher responsiveness to chemoradiation [
19,
20]. However, it is unclear whether HPV-related tumours have the same probability of being detected as HPV-unrelated tumours. In this study, 44% of the tumours were HPV positive whereas all the patients with residual disease had a HPV negative tumour. Nevertheless, the small sample size precludes definite conclusions regarding differences in detection.
Outcomes of this study were the proportion of correctly diagnosed patients, costs concerning diagnostic instruments and the number of unnecessary EUA indications. This means that health benefits, i.e. the proportion of correct diagnoses, and treatment burden, i.e. unnecessary EUA indications, were evaluated separately. Moreover, not all health benefits and treatment burden were captured in these outcomes. For example, declined survival probabilities due to false-negative test results as well as side-effects of EUA were not taken into account. Outcomes that encompass all health benefits and treatment burden such as quality-adjusted life-years (QALYs) would therefore be preferable. Comparing costs per QALY would lead to a more comprehensive evaluation of the response evaluation strategies. However, it was not possible to calculate QALYs due to the trial design. Patients in the trial were subjected to all tests for response evaluation meaning that residual disease which may be missed by one test (false-negative) could be detected by one of the other tests. If patients would be subjected to only one test, as in the strategies evaluated in this study, patients with false-negative test results would have become symptomatically detected at a later point of time. Since earlier detection leads to improved survival probabilities [
1,
2], it was not possible to correctly estimate QALYs. As an alternative, we calculated costs per true-positive case for the different strategies.
We hypothesize that the ordering of strategies would not change when the evaluation was based on costs per QALY. A strategy using an instrument with a high sensitivity and few (unnecessary) EUA indications would be favoured because this strategy would lead to low rates of missed residual disease and low treatment burden. This means that the combined PET-CT and DW-MRI strategy would still be the strategy of choice. To assess this hypothesis, future studies should include costs per QALY.
To our knowledge, few studies have assessed the cost-effectiveness of response evaluation in patients with head and neck cancer treated with CRT. Two studies compared a strategy of PET-CT scanning prior to neck dissection and up-front neck dissection for all patients. These studies showed that the imaging strategy was more cost-effective [
9,
21]. Although these studies did not compare imaging to EUA, they also indicate that imaging can be more cost-effective than more invasive strategies.
In clinical practice, PET-CT can be used for response evaluation at the primary site and neck and to detect distant metastases simultaneously. Previous studies have shown that PET-CT is cost-effective for response evaluation after (chemo)radiation of the pretreatment advanced stage positive neck when only patients with a PET-CT positive neck underwent neck dissection compared to planned neck dissection in all patients [
21,
22]. Moreover, pretreatment screening for distant metastases using PET-CT appeared also to be cost-effective [
23]. These evaluations by PET-CT add to the cost-effectiveness of response evaluation of the primary site as reported in the present study. For DW-MRI no data on cost-effectiveness in response evaluation of neck disease is available. Also for response evaluation of advanced nodal neck disease the combination of PET-CT and DW-MRI seems to have the highest sensitivity and specificity [
24].
Results of cost-effectiveness studies can be used for the development of a guideline for response evaluation in patients with OPSCC. The need for such a guideline is underlined by a previous study showing that there is substantial variation in the diagnostic tests used for response evaluation [
3]. By including studies on cost-effectiveness in the guideline development process, guideline recommendations will not only be based on the most effective strategy, but on the most cost-effective strategy. This will lead to more sensible use of scarce healthcare resources. This is the first cost-effectiveness study evaluating different response evaluation strategies. However, there was considerable uncertainty regarding important model parameters due to the small sample size of the trial. Additional studies, preferably based on trials with a larger sample size, are required to provide a comprehensive evidence base for guideline development.