Background
Definition and prevalence of Cybervictimization
Association with psychosocial characteristics
Risk factors for cyberbullying
Socio-demographic risk factors and cultural differences
Internet use and SNS variables
Theoretical framework and hypothesis
Methods
Procedure and participants
Materials
Socio-demographic characteristics
Cyberbullying victimization
Psychosocial wellbeing
Data analysis
Results
Ν (%) | |
---|---|
Total sample | 12,372 (100) |
Country | |
Germany | 2178 (17.6) |
Greece | 1894 (15.3) |
Iceland | 1790 (14.5) |
Netherlands | 1176 (9.5) |
Poland | 1849 (14.9) |
Romania | 1612 (13.0) |
Spain | 1873 (15.1) |
Gender | |
Females | 6586 (53.2) |
Males | 5786 (46.8) |
Age (years) | |
14–15.9 | 7627 (61.6) |
16–17.9 | 4745 (38.4) |
Parental educational level | |
Low/middle | 3903 (37.2) |
High | 6603 (62.8) |
Parental family status | |
Married/ living together | 9662 (80.1) |
Divorced/ separated/ single-parent family | 2399 (19.9) |
Age at first starting to use the Internet: mean years (SD) | 9.6 (2.5) |
Daily use of SNS | |
No use/< 2 h | 7411 (63.6) |
≥ 2 h | 4250 (36.4) |
Daily Internet use | |
No use/< 2 h | 5635 (49.0) |
≥ 2 h | 5874 (51.0) |
Parents allow me to visit every site | |
Never/ seldom | 1186 (10.3) |
Sometimes | 1351 (11.8) |
Often/ very often/ my parents do not know which websites I visit | 8928 (77.9) |
How often parents say to stay on Internet a certain time | |
Never/ seldom | 6652 (54.1) |
Sometimes | 3031 (24.6) |
Often/ very often | 2621 (21.3) |
Internalizing Problems score, mean (SD) | 10.9 (8.6) |
Externalizing Problems score, mean (SD) | 11.5 (8.5) |
Greece | Spain | Romania | Poland | Germany | Netherlands | Iceland | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Gender | |||||||
Females | 28.9% (284/982)a 26.1–31.9 | 15.7% (153/977) 12.9–18.9 | 39.0% (358/917) 35.6–42.6 | 23.4% (228/973) 20.6–26.7 | 24.7% (295/1196) 21.9–27.7 | 19.4% (116/597) 16.2–23.1 | 16.0% (151/944) 13.7–18.6 |
Males | 24.6% (224/912) 21.8–27.6 | 10.7% (96/896) 8.5–13.4 | 35.1% (244/695) 31.0–39.5 | 19.4% (170/876) 16.5–22.6 | 23.9% (235/982) 21.0–27.1 | 11.4% (66/579) 9.1–14.1 | 10.8% (91/846) 8.8–13.1 |
Age (years) | |||||||
14–15.9 | 26.4% (351/1330) 24.0–29..0 | 12.6% (154/1226) 10.5–14.9 | 42.6% (179/420) 37.2–48.2 | 21.1% (288/1368) 18.4–23.9 | 24.3% (304/1249) 21.6–27.2 | 16.3% (74/455) 13.3–19.7 | 13.4% (211/1579) 11.5–15.5 |
16–17.9 | 27.8% (157/564) 24.4–31.5 | 14.7% (95/647) 11.8–18.1 | 35.5% (423/1192) 32.4–38.7 | 22.9% (110/481) 19.0–27.3 | 24.3% (226/929) 21.7–27.2 | 15.0% (108/721) 12.3–18.1 | 14.7% (31/211) 10.7–19.9 |
Parental educational level | |||||||
Low/Middle | 29.1% (229/787) 26.1–32.3 | 13.8% (93/672) 10.9–17.4 | 38.7% (273/705) 34.2–43.5 | 20.4% (147/721) 17.2–24.0 | 25.0% (133/532) 21.5–28.8 | 15.6% (27/173) 11.2–21.4 | 14.1% (44/313) 9.9–19.5 |
High | 25.0% (249/997) 22.4–27.7 | 13.1% (132/1005) 10.9–15.8 | 38.7% (276/714) 35.4–42.0 | 23.5% (170/722) 20.1–27.4 | 24.4% (303/1242) 21.9–27.1 | 14.7% (106/722) 11.9–18.0 | 13.6% (163/1201) 11.6–15.8 |
Parental family status | |||||||
Married/ living together | 25.5% (409/1602) 23.5–27.6 | 12.4% (195/1570) 10.5–14.6 | 36.5% (491/1345) 33.8–39.3 | 21.0% (309/1470) 18.4–23.9 | 22.8% (350/1537) 20.4–25.3 | 14.2% (121/853) 11.8–17.0 | 12.1% (156/1285) 10.2–14.5 |
Divorced/ separated/ Single- parent family | 35.7% (94/263) 30.7–41.1 | 17.4% (50/288) 13.2–22.5 | 41.7% (101/242) 35.6–48.2 | 23.2% (76/328) 18.9–28.1 | 28.0% (148/528) 24.5–31.9 | 19.2% (55/287) 14.3–25.2 | 17.5% (81/463) 13.9–21.8 |
Daily use of SNS | |||||||
No use/< 2 h | 20.9% (252/1203) 18.7–23.4 | 10.5% (120/1140) 8.5–12.9 | 30.0% (273/910) 26.1–34.2 | 18.9% (239/1264) 16.2–21.9 | 20.0% (235/1173) 17.7–22.6 | 13.0% (86/664) 10.7–15.6 | 9.6% (102/1057) 7.7–12.0 |
≥ 2 h | 38.1% (243/637) 34.7–41.7 | 17.5% (116/661) 14.6–21.0 | 48.1% (289/601) 44.5–51.7 | 28.0% (143/510) 24.3–32.1 | 29.8% (249/835) 26.7–33.1 | 19.5% (78/400) 15.9–23.7 | 20.3% (123/606) 17.1–23.9 |
Daily Internet use | |||||||
No use/< 2 h | 21.4% (234/1095) 18.9–24.1 | 10.6% (118/1112) 8.5–13.2 | 29.9% (217/726) 25.8–34.3 | 19.1% (164/858) 16.2–22.5 | 20.6% (209/1015) 17.8–23.7 | 12.0% (55/458) 9.4–15.3 | 8.3% (59/707) 6.3–10.9 |
≥ 2 h | 34.5% (261/756) 31.2–38.0 | 17.5% (126/720) 14.9–20.4 | 44.0% (356/810) 40.7–47.3 | 23.7% (218/921) 20.7–27.0 | 27.4% (287/1046) 24.7–30.4 | 18.1% (118/652) 15.0–21.7 | 16.6% (164/989) 13.9–19.6 |
Parents allow me to visit every site | |||||||
Never/ seldom | 25.7% (69/268) 21.2–30.8 | 14.4% (28/195) 9.7–20.8 | 24.2% (39/161) 17.1–33.1 | 16.3% (25/153) 11.0–23.6 | 30.7% (39/127) 23.2–39.4 | 13.7% (10/73) 7.4–24.1 | 12.4% (26/209) 8.7–17.4 |
Sometimes | 25.2% (85/337) 20.0–31.0 | 10.0% (22/221) 6.5–15.0 | 32.2% (75/233) 26.1–38.9 | 14.8% (20/135) 9.6–22.1 | 21.0% (34/162) 15.7–27.5 | 16.2% (11/68) 9.1–27.1 | 14.4% (28/195) 10.2–19.8 |
Often/ very often/ parents don’t know | 27.7% (352/1271) 25.3–30.2 | 13.7% (199/1449) 11.8–15.9 | 34.9% (155/444) 30.8–39.3 | 22.6% (351/1553) 20.1–25.4 | 24.2% (444/1835) 22.1–26.4 | 15.4% (156/1010) 13.1–18.1 | 13.4% (183/1366) 11.4–15.7 |
Parents restrict time on Internet | |||||||
Never/ seldom | 25.3% (180/712) 22.0–28.8 | 13.0% (78/601) 10.3–16.2 | 35.4% (344/971) 32.3–38.7 | 19.5% (208/1069) 16.6–22.6 | 23.3% (332/1424) 20.8–26.0 | 14.5% (122/843) 12.1–17.3 | 13.0% (134/1032) 10.4–16.0 |
Sometimes | 27.9% (138/495) 23.9–32.3 | 12.7% (67/526) 9.6–16.8 | 38.5% (160/416) 33.5–43.6 | 23.1% (110/476) 19.2–27.5 | 23.8% (103/432) 19.7–28.6 | 15.2% (32/211) 11.0–20.5 | 13.7% (65/475) 10.4–17.8 |
Often/ very often | 28.0% (188/672) 24.7–31.5 | 14.1% (104/740) 11.5–17.0 | 45.0% (98/218) 38.6–51.5 | 26.4% (78/295) 21.2–32.5 | 29.7% (92/310) 25.0–34.8 | 24.1% (27/112) 16.5–33.9 | 14.6% (40/274) 11.3–18.7 |
Greece | Spain | Romania | Poland | |||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
OR 95% CI | Adjusted OR | P | OR 95% CI | Adjusted OR | P | OR 95% CI | Adjusted OR | P | OR 95% CI | Adjusted OR | P | |
Gender | ||||||||||||
Females | 1b | 1b | 1b | 1b | 1b | 1b | 1b | 1b | ||||
Males | 0.80 (0.64–0.99) | 0.79a (0.62-1.03) | 0.08 | 0.65 (0.46–0.90) | 0.79 (0.57–1.11) | 0.18 | 0.85 (0.67–1.06) | 1.06 (0.73–1.53) | 0.77 | 0.79 (0.63–0.98) | 1.09 (0.79–1.49) | 0.61 |
Age (years) | ||||||||||||
14–15.9 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | ||||
16–17.9 | 1.08 (0.86–1.35) | 1.08 (0.84–1.4) | 0.55 | 1.20 (0.91–1.58) | 1.26 (0.91–1.74) | 0.16 | 0.74 (0.57–0.96) | 0.52 (0.35–0.75) | 0.001 | 1.11 (0.87–1.43) | 1.05 (0.75–1.46) | 0.78 |
Parental educational level | ||||||||||||
Low/Middle | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | ||||
High | 0.81 (0.67–0.99) | 0.94 (0.74–1.2) | 0.64 | 0.94 (0.68–1.31) | 1.15 (0.83–1.6) | 0.39 | 1.00 (0.79–1.26) | 1.14 (0.80–1.62) | 0.47 | 1.20 (0.93–1.55) | 1.10 (0.82–1.49) | 0.52 |
Parental family status | ||||||||||||
Married/ living together | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | ||||
Other | 1.62 (1.27–2.07) | 1.36 (0.98–1.87) | 0.063 | 1.48 (1.06–2.08) | 1.33 (0.9–1.97) | 0.16 | 1.25 (0.97–1.59) | 1.06 (0.67–1.70) | 0.80 | 1.13 (0.86–1.49) | 1.00 (0.68–1.47) | 0.99 |
Age at first Internet use | 0.97 (0.92–1.01) | 0.99 (0.93–1.05) | 0.77 | 0.99 (0.92–1.06) | 0.99 (0.92–1.07) | 0.79 | 0.96 (0.92–1.00) | 1.07 (0.99–1.17) | 0.08 | 0.97 (0.91–1.02) | 1.04 (0.96–1.12) | 0.39 |
Daily use of SNS | ||||||||||||
No use/< 2 h | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | ||||
≥ 2 h | 2.33 (1.87–2.89) | 1.34 (0.94–1.91) | 0.10 | 1.81 (1.35–2.43) | 0.96 (0.60–1.52) | 0.86 | 2.16 (1.71–2.73) | 1.83 (1.21–2.76) | 0.004 | 1.67 (1.32–2.12) | 1.53 (1.05–2.24) | 0.028 |
Daily Internet use | ||||||||||||
No use/< 2 h | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | ||||
≥ 2 h | 1.94 (1.55–2.43) | 1.34 (0.95–1.90) | 0.10 | 1.79 (1.36–2.34) | 1.34 (0.85–2.10) | 0.21 | 1.84 (1.45–2.33) | 1.57 (1.02–2.42) | 0.041 | 1.31 (1.06–1.62) | 0.98 (0.69–1.41) | 0.93 |
Parents allow me to visit every site | ||||||||||||
Never/ seldom | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | ||||
Sometimes | 0.97 (0.67–1.41) | 1.16 (0.75–1.77) | 0.51 | 0.66 (0.38–1.16) | 0.89 (0.45–1.76) | 0.75 | 1.49 (0.88–2.51) | 1.28 (0.73–2.22) | 0.39 | 0.89 (0.50–1.58) | 0.85 (0.37–1.96) | 0.71 |
Often/ very often/ parents don’t know | 1.11 (0.84–1.45) | 1.08 (0.74–1.56) | 0.70 | 0.95 (0.61–1.50) | 1.05 (0.62–1.76) | 0.87 | 1.68 (1.07–2.63) | 1.29 (0.75–2.21) | 0.36 | 1.50 (0.94–2.38) | 1.27 (0.69–2.33) | 0.44 |
Parents limit time on Internet | ||||||||||||
Never/ seldom | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | ||||
Sometimes | 1.14 (0.97–1.51) | 1.17 (0.87–1.58) | 0.31 | 0.98 (0.67–1.43) | 1.13 (0.75–1.70) | 0.56 | 1.14 (0.90–1.45) | 1.11 (0.74–1.64) | 0.62 | 1.24 (0.94–1.66) | 1.49 (1.06–2.10) | 0.022 |
Often/ very often | 1.15 (0.90–1.47) | 1.2 (0.91–1.59) | 0.19 | 1.10 (0.80–1.51) | 1.18 (0.81–1.73) | 0.39 | 1.49 (1.13–1.96) | 1.32 (0.81–2.16) | 0.27 | 1.49 (1.09–2.02) | 1.63 (1.08–2.47) | 0.021 |
Internalizing Problems | 1.06 (1.05–1.07) | 1.04 (1.02–1.05) | < 0.001 | 1.08 (1.06–1.10) | 1.06 (1.04–1.08) | < 0.001 | 1.07 (1.05–1.09) | 1.05 (1.02–1.08) | 0.004 | 1.05 (1.04–1.07) | 1.03 (1.01–1.05) | 0.005 |
Externalizing Problems | 1.06 (1.04–1.07) | 1.04 (1.02–1.05) | < 0.001 | 1.06 (1.04–1.09) | 1.04 (1.02–1.06) | < 0.001 | 1.06 (1.04–1.07) | 1.02 (1.00–1.05) | 0.06 | 1.07 (1.05–1.08) | 1.05 (1.02–1.07) | < 0.001 |
Germany | Netherlands | Iceland | |||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
OR 95% CI | Adjusted OR | P | OR 95% CI | Adjusted OR | P | OR 95% CI | Adjusted OR | P | |
Gender | |||||||||
Females | 1b | 1b | 1b | 1b | 1b | 1b | |||
Males | 0.96 (0.76–1.21) | 1.03a (0.80–1.33) | 0.82 | 0.53 (0.39–0.73) | 0.50 (0.30–0.83) | 0.008 | 0.63 (0.51–0.79) | 0.75 (0.5–1.12) | 0.16 |
Age (years) | |||||||||
14–15.9 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | |||
16–17.9 | 1.00 (0.82–1.22) | 1.04 (0.81–1.34) | 0.74 | 0.91 (0.68–1.21) | 0.85 (0.54–1.33) | 0.47 | 1.12 (0.79–1.59) | 0.99 (0.58–1.66) | 0.96 |
Parental educational level | |||||||||
Low/middle | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | |||
High | 0.97 (0.78–1.21) | 0.95 (0.72–1.25) | 0.70 | 0.93 (0.58–1.48) | 1.21 (0.69–2.13) | 0.51 | 0.96 (0.63–1.46) | 1.59 (1.00–2.51) | 0.048 |
Parental family status | |||||||||
Married/ living together | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | |||
Other | 1.32 (1.06–1.65) | 1.26 (0.96–1.66) | 0.10 | 1.43 (0.95–2.18) | 1 (0.61–1.64) | 0.99 | 1.54 (1.09–2.16) | 1.25 (0.86–1.83) | 0.25 |
Age at first Internet use | 1.00 (0.96–1.05) | 0.97 (0.91–1.03) | 0.32 | 0.97 (0.89–1.05) | 0.93 (0.83–1.05) | 0.25 | 0.97 (0.91–1.04) | 0.98 (0.90–1.07) | 0.61 |
Daily use of SNS | |||||||||
None/< 2 h | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | |||
≥ 2 h | 1.70 (1.38–2.08) | 1.66 (1.18–2.34) | 0.004 | 1.63 (1.19–2.24) | 1.15 (0.68–1.95) | 0.61 | 2.38 (1.77–3.21) | 1.37 (0.89–2.13) | 0.16 |
Daily Internet use | |||||||||
None/< 2 h | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | |||
≥ 2 h | 1.46 (1.16–1.83) | 0.91 (0.64–1.29) | 0.60 | 1.62 (1.14–2.30) | 1.23 (0.71–2.12) | 0.46 | 2.18 (1.56–3.06) | 1.46 (0.91–2.34) | 0.11 |
Parents allow me to visit every site | |||||||||
Never/ seldom | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | |||
Sometimes | 0.60 (0.38–0.95) | 0.52 (0.26–1.04) | 0.06 | 1.22 (0.46–3.25) | 0.79 (0.20–3.10) | 0.73 | 1.18 (0.68–2.04) | 1.25 (0.61–2.56) | 0.55 |
Often/ yery often/parents don’t know | 0.72 (0.49–1.06) | 0.61 (0.36–1.04) | 0.07 | 1.15 (0.59–2.24) | 1.05 (0.38–2.84) | 0.93 | 1.09 (0.74–1.61) | 0.76 (0.42–1.37) | 0.36 |
Parents limit time on Internet | |||||||||
Never/ seldom | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | |||
Sometimes | 1.03 (0.78–1.37) | 1.21 (0.88–1.66) | 0.24 | 1.06 (0.70–1.59) | 0.80 (0.42–1.5) | 0.48 | 1.06 (0.72–1.57) | 1.28 (0.86–1.92) | 0.23 |
Often/ Very often | 1.39 (1.06–1.82) | 1.37 (0.96–1.96) | 0.08 | 1.88 (1.14–3.09) | 1.66 (0.86–3.21) | 0.13 | 1.15 (0.77–1.70) | 1.13 (0.69–1.85) | 0.64 |
Internalizing Problems | -c | -c | 1.07 (1.05–1.10) | 1.04 (1.01–1.07) | 0.004 | 1.08 (1.07–1.10) | 1.05 (1.02–1.07) | < 0.001 | |
Externalizing Problems | -c | -c | 1.05 (1.03–1.07) | 1.03 (1–1.06) | 0.028 | 1.10 (1.08–1.12) | 1.07 (1.05–1.10) | < 0.001 |