Background
Method
Study design
Stage 1
Stage 2
Stage 3
Population, setting and duration of study
Instruments
Socio-demographic questionnaire
Brief psychiatric rating scale (BPRS) and the Malay version of the Brief psychiatric rating scale (BPRS-M)
Positive and negative syndrome scale (PANSS)
The Calgary depression scale for schizophrenia (CDSS)
Quality of life assessment
Statistical analyses
Results
Characteristic | N(%) |
---|---|
Gender | |
Male | 42 (42.4%) |
Female | 57 (57.6%) |
Age (mean ± SD) | 42.85 ± 11.77 |
Race | |
Malay | 14 (14.1%) |
Chinese | 56 (56.6%) |
Indian | 26 (26.3%) |
Others | 3 (3.0%) |
Marital Status | |
Single | 72 (72.7%) |
Married | 27 (27.3%) |
Education | |
Primary | 10 (10.1%) |
Secondary | 63 (63.6%) |
Tertiary | 26 (26.3%) |
Occupation | |
Unemployed | 81 (81.8%) |
Employed | 18 (18.2%) |
Duration of illness | |
Less than 5 years | 13 (13.1%) |
5 years and above | 86 (86.9%) |
Number of hospital admission | |
No admission | 13 (13.1%) |
1 – 2 admissions | 45 (45.5%) |
3 – 4 admissions | 12 (12.1%) |
5 and more admissions | 29 (29.3%) |
Family history of mental illness | 34 (34.3%) |
PANSS (mean ± SD) | |
PANSS Positive | 6.35 ± 4.75 |
PANSS Negative | 16.77 ± 5.52 |
PANSS General | 25.72 ± 6.74 |
PANSS Total | 56.10 ± 14.32 |
CDSS (mean ± SD) | 2.96 ± 4.05 |
WHOQOL-BREF score (mean ± SD) | |
Physical | 23.14 ± 3.09 |
Psychological | 19.31 ± 3.52 |
Social | 6.90 ± 2.64 |
Environment | 24.20 ± 4.15 |
Overall | 6.65 ± 1.50 |
Factor structure and internal consistency of BPRS-M
Items | 1 Positive Symptoms | 2 Mood disturbance | 3 Negative Symptoms | 4 Activation | 5 Resistance | 6 Somatization | 7 Orientation |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
4. Conceptual Disorganization | 0.70 | ||||||
11. Suspiciousness | 0.85 | ||||||
12. Hallucinatory Behavior | 0.77 | ||||||
15. Unusual Thought Content | 0.69 | ||||||
2. Anxiety | 0.84 | ||||||
5. Guilt Feelings | 0.46 | ||||||
6. Tension | 0.81 | ||||||
9. Depressive Mood | 0.70 | ||||||
3. Emotional Withdrawal | 0.93 | ||||||
13. Motor Retardation | 0.50 | ||||||
16. Blunted Affect | 0.92 | ||||||
8. Grandiosity | 0.88 | ||||||
17. Excitement | 0.90 | ||||||
10. Hostility | 0.86 | ||||||
14. Uncooperativeness | 0.81 | ||||||
1.Somatic Concern | 0.93 | ||||||
7. Mannerisms and Posturing | 0.76 | ||||||
18. Disorientation | 1.00 | ||||||
Eigenvalue | 3.95 | 2.16 | 1.64 | 1.52 | 1.38 | 1.20 | 1.00 |
Variance (%) | 21.92 | 12.00 | 9.10 | 8.45 | 7.68 | 6.66 | 5.57 |
AVE | CR | Cronbach’s Alpha | |
---|---|---|---|
Positive Symptoms | 0.57 | 0.84 | 0.79 |
Mood disturbance | 0.52 | 0.81 | 0.70 |
Negative Symptoms | 0.65 | 0.84 | 0.72 |
Activation | 0.79 | 0.88 | 0.74 |
Resistance | 0.69 | 0.82 | 0.56 |
Somatization | 0.72 | 0.83 | 0.63 |
Orientation | 1.00 | 1.00 | 1.00 |
Positive Symptoms | Mood disturbance | Negative Symptoms | Activation | Resistance | Somatization | Orientation | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Positive Symptoms |
0.76
| ||||||
Mood disturbance | 0.33 |
0.72
| |||||
Negative Symptoms | 0.31 | 0.15 |
0.81
| ||||
Activation | −0.21 | −0.16 | −0.23 |
0.89
| |||
Resistance | 0.24 | 0.28 | 0.21 | −0.11 |
0.83
| ||
Somatization | 0.08 | 0.20 | 0.08 | −0.08 | 0.18 |
0.85
| |
Orientation | 0.12 | −0.04 | −0.04 | −0.02 | 0.10 | −0.04 |
1.00
|
BPRS-M Factor scores | ||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Positive Symptoms a
| Mood disturbance a
| Negative Symptoms a
| Activation a
| Resistance b
| Somatization b
| Orientation b
| Total a
| |
Gender |
t = −0.73 |
t = 1.67 |
t = −2.56 |
t = −1.74 | Z = −0.71 | Z = −1.02 | Z = −0.86 | t = −0.73 |
Male | 6.76(4.84) | 2.83(2.88) | 5.83 (3.03) | 2.69(1.20) * | 0.74(51.99) | 0.52 (52.14) | 0 | 16.69(8.09) |
Female | 6.05(4.70) | 3.84(3.03) | 4.47(2.26) | 2.26(1.22) | 0.74 (48.54) | 0.26 (48.42) | 0.02(50.37) | 15.49(8.06) |
Ethnicity |
t = 0.48 |
t = −0.96 |
t = 1.22 |
t = 1.05 | Z = −0.16 | Z = −0.40 | Z = −1.63 |
t = 0.30 |
Chinese | 6.55(4.72) | 3.16(2.92) | 5.34(2.97) | 2.55(1.35) | 0.75(49.66) | 0.30(49.38) | 0.02(49.50) | 16.21(8.17) |
non- Chinese | 6.09(4.82) | 3.74(3.09) | 4.67(2.23) | 2.30(1.04) | 0.72(50.44) | 0.47(50.81) | 0 | 15.72(8.00) |
Marital Status | t = −0.96 |
t = −0.33 |
t = −0.10 |
t = 0.53 | Z = −0.09 | Z = −0.57 | Z = −1.63 |
t = −0.99 |
Married | 6.15(4.49) | 3.22(2.87) | 5.15 (1.92) | 2.40(1.33) | 0.63 (49.65) | 0.37(48.33) | 0 | 15.48(7.51) |
non-married | 6.43(4.87) | 3.49(3.06) | 5.01(2.93) | 2.56(0.89) | 0.78(50.13) | 0.38(50.63) | 0.01(51.33) | 16.19(8.29) |
Education |
t = −1.96 |
t = −0.90 |
t = −4.61 |
t = −3.46 | Z = −1.74 | Z = −0.08 | Z = −0.59 |
t = −3.11 |
≤ Secondary | 6.90(4.65) | 3.58(3.02) | 5.73(2.43) ** | 2.68(1.07) ** | 0.84(52.51) | 0.41(50.08) | 0.01(50.18) | 17.44(7.74)** |
≥ Tertiary | 4.81(4.77) | 2.96(2.95) | 3.15(2.49) | 1.77(1.39) | 0.46(42.96) | 0.27(49.77) | 0 | 11.96(7.67) |
Employed |
t = −2.38 |
t = 0.83 |
t = −1.86 |
t = −2.17 | Z = −1.15 | Z = −0.54 | Z = −0.47 |
t = −2.04 |
Yes | 4.00(4.17) * | 3.94(3.02) | 4.00 (2.17) * | 1.89(0.90) * | 0.44(44.11) | 0.28(47.94) | 0 | 12.56(7.96)* |
No | 6.88(4.73) | 3.30(3.00) | 5.28(2.74) | 2.57(1.25) | 0.80(51.31) | 0.40(50.46) | 0.01(49.50) | 16.77(7.92) |
Family history of mental illness |
t = 1.30 |
t = −0.15 |
t = 0.10 |
t = −0.36 | Z = −0.60 | Z = −0.99 | Z = −1.38 |
t = 0.87 |
Yes | 7.21(4.29) | 3.35(2.92) | 5.09(2.94) | 2.38(1.28) | 0.85(52.00) | 0.41()52.46 | 0.03 (50.96) | 16.97(7.15) |
No | 5.91(4.94) | 3.45(3.06) | 5.03(2.57) | 2.48(1.20) | 0.68(48.95) | 0.35()48.72 | 0 | 15.49(8.50) |
BPRS-M Factor scores | ||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Positive Symptoms c
| Mood disturbancec
| Negative Symptoms c
| Activation c
| Resistance d
| Somatic d
| Orientation b
| Total c
| |
Age |
r = −0.11 |
r = −0.09 |
r = 0.02 |
r = 0.07 | r = 0.02 |
r = −0.17 |
r = 0.21 |
r = −0.12 |
Duration of illness |
r = 0.04 |
r = −0.07 |
r = 0.14 |
r = 0.12 |
r = 0.09 |
r = 0.16 |
r = 0.03 |
r = 0.03 |
Number of hospital admission |
r = 0.10 |
r = 0.03 |
r = −0.05 |
r = −0.08 |
r = 0.05 |
r = −0.03 |
r = 0.14 |
r = 0.06 |
Number of antipsychotics |
r = 0.24* |
r = 0.11 |
r = −0.03 |
r = −0.10 |
r = 0.26** |
r = −0.01 |
r = −0.08 |
r = 0.18 |
Total BPRS English |
r = 0.95** | |||||||
PANSS | ||||||||
Positive |
r = 1.00** |
r = 0.24* |
r = 0.39** |
r = 0.32** |
r = 0.25* |
r = 0.14 |
r = 0.14 |
r = 0.83** |
Negative |
r = 0.58** |
r = 0.11 |
r = 0.77** |
r = 0.71** |
r = 0.26** |
r = 0.11 |
r = 0.08 |
r = 0.64** |
General |
r = 0.61** |
r = 0.47** |
r = 0.60** |
r = 0.54**
|
r = 0.35** |
r = 0.24* |
r = 0.05 |
r = 0.80** |
Total |
r = 0.76** |
r = 0.36** |
r = 0.68** |
r = 0.61**
|
r = 0.35** |
r = 0.22* |
r = 0.05 |
r = 0.86** |
CDSS |
r = 0.16 |
r = 0.72** |
r = 0.07 |
r = 0.08 |
r = 0.16 |
r = 0.01 |
r = 0.04 |
r = 0.39** |
WHOQOL-BREF | ||||||||
Physical |
r = −0.33** |
r = −0.17 |
r = −0.30** |
r = −0.26** |
r = −0.23* |
r = 0.11 |
r = −0.13 |
r = −0.37** |
Psychological |
r = −0.35** |
r = −0.28** |
r = −0.35** |
r = −0.26** |
r = −0.19 |
r = −0.13 |
r = −0.09 |
r = −0.46** |
Social |
r = −0.37** |
r = −0.03 |
r = −0.58** |
r = −0.50** |
r = −0.11 |
r = −0.10 |
r = −0.02 |
r = −0.45** |
Environment |
r = −0.44** |
r = −0.07 |
r = −0.47** |
r = −0.39** |
r = −0.12 |
r = −0.12 | −0.05 |
r = − 0.47** |
Overall |
r = −0.27** |
r = −0.11 |
r = −0.13 |
r = −0.14 |
r = −0.10 |
r = −0.10 | 0.02 |
r = −0.24* |