Introduction
Animal models of heart failure: backward failure
Model | Experimental technique | Technical challenges | Advantages | Disadvantages | Species | References |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Myocardial infarction | LAD coronary artery ligation | - Challenging technique - High mortality | - Leading cause of CHF - Widely accepted technique to induce CHF - Congestive features are present | - Varying of degree of myocardial ischemia - Heart failure can be temporary due to compensatory changes - CVP is minimally increased - Left ventricular function/morphology is affected with induction of left-sided heart failure | Rat Rat | Pfeffer et al. 1979 [15] Francis et al. 2001 [16] |
Rapid ventricular pacing | External or internal pacemaker to induce arrhythmias | - Choice to pace at a desired bpm | - Simple instrumentation - Neurohumoral activation as in patients - Cessation restores hemodynamics - Congestive features are present | - In patients, CHF develops prior to arrhythmias - CVP is moderately increased - Left ventricular function is affected with induction of left-sided heart failure | Dog Dog Dog Dog Dog | Riegger et al. 1982 [17] Moe et al. 1989 [18] Howard et al. 1988 [19] Ohno et al. 1994 [20] Wilson et al. 1987 [21] |
Aorta-caval shunt | Perforation of aorta and inferior vena cava | - Challenging technique | - Congestive features are present - High-output failure and cardiac hypertrophy - Increased CVP | - Decreased MAP - Arterial and venous blood mix - Unpredictable time course - Induction of left- AND right-sided heart failure | Rat Dog Rat Rat Rat Rat | Langenickel et al. 2000 [22] Porter et al. 1983 [23] Flaim et al. 1979 [24] Garcia et al. 1990 [25] Abassi et al. 2011 [26] Liu et al. 1991 [27] |
Mitral regurgitation | Chordae disruption by catheter-based method | - Challenging technique | - Minimally invasive - Congestive features are present | - Anatomic changes in mitral valve - Left ventricular function is affected with induction of left-sided heart failure - No clear increase of CVP | Dog Dog Rat Dog | Young et al. 1996 [28] Kleaveland et al. 1988 [29] Ichikawa et al. 1990 [30] Spinale et al. 1993 [31] |
Monocrotaline | Varying dose of MCT injection | - The optimal dose to induce pulmonary hypertension without a high mortality | - Induction of pulmonary hypertension and right ventricle failure - Increased CVP | - Toxicity/safety issues - Altered pulmonary function/morphology | Rat Minipig Dog Rat Rat Rat Rat | Werchan et al. 1989 [32] Zeng et al. 2013 [33] Chen et al. 1997 [34] Zhang et al. (2004) [35] Chen et al. (2001) [36] Cui et al. (2009) [37] Angelini et al. 2016 [38] |
Pulmonary artery banding | Suture, clip, or inflatable ring around pulmonary artery, proximal to the right ventricle | - Challenging technique - Suture, clip, or inflatable ring, no consensus | - Chronic right ventricular pressure overload and failure - Increased CVP - Effect on kidneys and liver | - Decreased CO | Rat Rat Rat Rat | Schou et al. 2007 [39] Fujimoto et al. 2016 [40] Mendes-Ferreira et al. 2016 [41] Olivetti et al. 1988 [42] |
IVC constriction: subdiaphragmatic venous congestion | Saline infusion, surgical wire, metal clamp, adjustable band, or constrictor cuff | - Challenging technique and no consensus about experimental technique | - Increased CVP - Systemic venous pressure overload - Effect on heart, kidneys, and liver | - Variation in anatomical location of IVC constriction | Rat and dog |
Myocardial infarction
Rapid ventricular pacing
Aorta-caval shunt
Mitral valve regurgitation
Monocrotaline
Pulmonary artery banding
Animal models of isolated systemic congestion
Saline infusion
Inferior vena cava constriction: subdiaphragmatic venous congestion
Experimental technique to constrict IVC | Anatomical position | Degree of constriction | Hemodynamics/echocardiography | Species | Time frame | References |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Constriction by tying a wire around abdominal IVC and metal rod | Subdiaphragmatic | 20% of initial internal cross-sectional area | Hemodynamics | Rat | Chronic | Yates et al. 1958 [43] |
Constriction of thoracic IVC | Unknown | 1/3 or 2/3 of original diameter | Hemodynamics | Dog | Chronic | Davis et al. 1953 [44] |
Constriction of IVC, exact technique unknown | Thoracic and suprarenal | Unknown | Hemodynamics | Dog | Chronic | Seitchik et al. 1960 [45] |
Partial constriction of thoracic IVC with umbilical tape | Thoracic | Unknown | Hemodynamics | Dog | Subacute | Levy et al. 1972 [46] |
Complete ligation of abdominal IVC; exact technique unknown | Suprarenal and subhepatic | Unknown | – | Rat | Acute | Fitzsimons et al. 1982 [47] |
Ligation of abdominal IVC; exact technique unknown | Pre-, inter-, or post-renal | Unknown | – | Rat | Acute | Reinhardt et al. 1951 [48] |
Partial obstruction of IVC using an inflatable balloon inserted via the femoral vein/ligation of IVC with cellophane strip | Thoracic | Balloon: unknown Cellophane strip: 50% | – | Dog | Unknown | Crumb et al. 1977 [49] |
Ligation by tying a wire around abdominal IVC | Suprarenal | Unknown | – | Rat | Chronic | Du Rietz et al. 1979 [50] |
Ligation by tying a wire around abdominal IVC | Supra- and subrenal | Unknown | – | Rat | Acute | Mann et al. [51] |
Constriction by tying a wire around abdominal IVC | Between hepatic and renal veins | Unknown | Hemodynamics + echocardiography | Dog | Acute | Schrier et al. 1971 [52] |
Partial obstruction of IVC using an inflatable balloon inserted via the femoral vein/placement of a snare around IVC | Thoracic | Unknown | Hemodynamics | Dog | Acute | Anderson et al. 1974 [53] |
Constriction by tying a wire around abdominal IVC | Subdiaphragmatic | Unknown | Hemodynamics | Rat | Subacute | Ishikawa et al. 1986 [54] |
Constriction by tying a wire around abdominal IVC and polyethylene tube | Subdiaphragmatic | Unknown | – | Rat | Subacute | Kawamura et al. 1986 [55] |
Ligation of abdominal IVC; | Subrenal | Unknown | – | Rat | Acute | Zhou et al. 2009 [56] |
Constriction of the thoracic IVC by tying a wire round IVC and a steel wire of 0.6 mm | Subdiaphragmatic | 70% or original diameter | Hemodynamics | Rat | Chronic | Simonetto et al. 2016 [57] |
Ligation by tying a wire around abdominal IVC | Subdiaphragmatic | 1/4 of the original diameter | – | Rat | Chronic | Akiyoshi et al. 1999 [58] |
Constriction of the thoracic IVC using a metal spiral clamp | Unknown | Clamp with inner diameter clamp of 1.1–1.3 mm | – | Rat | Subacute | Bagrov et al. 1982 [59] |
Constriction of thoracic IVC using an adjustable metal clamp | Thoracic | Unknown | Hemodynamics | Dog | Subacute | Lifschitz et al. 1973 [60] |
Constriction of thoracic IVC using an adjustable band | Thoracic | Half of the original diameter | Hemodynamics + echocardiography | Dog | Subacute | Lisy et al. 2000 [61] |
Constriction of thoracic IVC using an adjustable band | Thoracic | Half of the original diameter | Hemodynamics | Dog | Subacute | Lisy et al. 2005 [62] |
Constriction of thoracic IVC using an adjustable band | Thoracic | Half of the original diameter | Hemodynamics | Dog | Subacute | Clavell et al. 1993 [63] |
Constriction of thoracic IVC using an adjustable band | Thoracic | Half of the original diameter | Hemodynamics | Dog | Subacute | Wei et al. 1997 [64] |
Constriction of the thoracic IVC using an inflatable constrictor cuff | Thoracic | Unknown | Hemodynamics | Dog | Subacute | Paganelli et al. 1988 [65] |
Constriction of thoracic IVC using an inflatable constrictor cuff | Unknown | Unknown | Hemodynamics | Dog | Subacute | Watkins et al., 1976 [66] |
Partial obstruction of IVC using an inflatable balloon inserted via the femoral vein/partial occlusion of thoracic IVC using umbilical tape | Thoracic | Unknown | Hemodynamics | Dog | Acute/subacute | Auld et al. 1969 [67] |
Partial obstruction of IVC using an inflatable balloon inserted via the femoral vein | Unknown | Unknown | Hemodynamics | Dog | Acute | Katz et al. 1959 [68] |
Partial obstruction by tying a wire around IVC or by using an inflatable balloon inserted via the femoral vein | Subdiaphragmatic | Unknown | Hemodynamics | Dog | Acute | Cirksena et al. 1966 [69] |
Constriction of the thoracic IVC by tying a wire round IVC and a 20G needle | Thoracic IVC, above diaphragm | Against a 20 gauge needle (0.812 mm) | Hemodynamics + echocardiography | Rat | Chronic | Cops et al. 2018 [70] Cops et al. 2018 [71] |