Introduction
Immunocompetent cells in tumor vicinity
Cell type | Stimulator | Function | Tumor type and specific role | References |
---|---|---|---|---|
TAM M1 | INF-γ TNF-α | Release of reactive oxygen species and nitric oxide to provide cytotoxic effect, release of IL-12, IL-23 to induce Th1 antitumor response | Ovarian cancer—accumulation improves prognosis; decreased angiogenesis, tumor regression | [6] [9] [26] [42] |
TAM M2 | TGF-β IL-4 IL-13 CCL2 Hypoxia CSF-1 Tumor cytokines Il-6, VEGF | Release of VEGF, EGF, and FGF to promote tumor growth and angiogenesis Synthesis of MMP-7 and MMP-9 | Cervical cancer—increased angiogenesis, increased lymphangiogenesis, worse response to treatment and worse overall survival Endometrial cancer—correlation with loss of differentiation; increased angiogenesis, lower progression free survival Ovarian cancer—poor prognosis correlates with M2 stimulation | [10] [12] [19] [20] [21] [22] [30] [31] [32] [43] |
TAN | CXCL1, CXCL2 INF- γ, TNF-α G-CSF IL-8 | Intracellular VEGF release MMP-9 synthesis Release of Bv8 Release of CXCL8 | Cervical cancer—low recurrence-free survival correlates with accumulation of TANs Ovarian cancer—increased angiogenesis Endometrial cancer—increased tumor growth | [53] [56] [59] [62] [61] [64] |
CD11+Gr1+ neutrophils | G-CSF | Alternative to VEGF angiogenesis pathway | Animal models only | [55] |
Mast cells | Hypoxia IgE Adenosine CRH | Release of Histamine, chymase, tryptase Leukotrienes, prostaglandins Cytokines: IL-1α, IL-1β, IL-3, IL-4, IL-5, IL-6, IL-9, IL- 10, IL-12, IL-13, IL-15, IL-16, IL-18, IFN-α, TGF-β, VEGF Autocrine stimulation with CCL2, CXCL1, CXCL10, PGE2, histamine, VEGF, Ang1, CXCL8/IL-8 | Endometrial cancer—poor prognosis, loss of differentiation with accumulation of mast cells Cervical cancer—tumor progression, increased angiogenesis and invasiveness Ovarian cancer—better prognosis | [68] [70] [73] [75] [76] [77] [78] [80] |
TILs-Treg FoxP3+ | ? | Positive correlation with vascular density | Cervical cancer—decreased overall survival Endometrial cancer—increased angiogenesis with no impact on survival | [89] [87] |
Tumor-associated macrophages
Neutrophils in tumor surroundings
Mast cells and basophils
Tumor-infiltrating lymphocytes
The role of extracellular matrix
ECM protein | Cellular receptor | Angiogenic effect | Tumor type and specific role | References |
---|---|---|---|---|
Tenascin SIBLING CCN family | αvβ3-integrin in EC | Stimulation of endothelial cells proliferation and survival | Ovarian cancer—worse prognosis Cervical cancer—increased angiogenesis Endometrial cancer—worse prognosis | [97] [104] [103] |
Osteopontin | α9β1-integrin in TAM | Inducing of cyclooxygenase expression | [98] | |
α9β1-integrin in ovarian cancer cells | Activation of the PI3-K/Akt pathway | Ovarian cancer—promotes tumor survival Cervical cancer—increases invasiveness | [100] [101] | |
LMWHA | TLR-2 and TLR-4 in macrophages | Increasing the synthesis of MMP-12, IL-10 and IL-12 | [107] | |
CD44 and receptor for HA-mediated motility in endothelial cells | Stimulation of EC proliferation and their increased motility | [108] | ||
Mucinous and clear cell ovarian cancer—high activity of hyaluronidase Endometrial and serous ovarian cancer, endometrioid endometrial cancer—low activity of hyaluronidase | [113] [114] [115] | |||
Fibronectin | α5β1-integrin αvβ3-integrin both in EC | Prolongation of EC survival | Ovarian cancer—worse prognosis | [118] [121] |
Thrombospondin | CD36 and CD47 both in EC | Negative: inhibits the proliferation of EC and stimulate their apoptosis | Negative correlation with tumor aggressiveness | [124] [125] [129] |
α6β1-integrin in TAM | Negative: polarization towards M1 type | [130] |