The over prevalence of soil borne helminth was (26.3%). This is in range with what has been reported previously in Uganda [
39], Tanzania [
40] and Ethiopia [
4]. Prevalence studies of soil borne helminths since 2009 have indicated that of
Ascaris lumbricoides, and the hookworm species are common infections in Bushenyi district among the soil borne helminths [
39]. This is in agreement with our finding were
Ascaris lumbricoides had the highest prevalence (75.0%) followed by hook worms (20.8%). In this study no
Trichuris trichiura infections were detected, similarly to what was observed by Agwu et al. [
39] in Bushenyi district. In this study, the
Plasmodium falciparum malaria prevalence was (22.9%) lower than that reported in previous studies in Uganda 27% [
2]. This could probably be because of the difference in the sample size. However, our findings compare well with the earlier report from southwest Uganda [
19] that reported a prevalence of 23%. Results from this study are in range with a previous study by Shapiro et al. [
19] who reported a prevalence of 15% among malaria helminth co-infected individuals in Uganda, 14% was reported in Zambia [
35,
41] and 13% was reported in Kenya (Rutagwera et al. [
6]). However this is not in range with a similar study done in Tanzania where they reported a prevalence among malaria helminth co-infected to be 26% [
6]. Among the helminths co-infections,
Ascaris lumbricoides had the highest prevalence (78.8%) and results from this study are in range with other studies done elsewhere in Madagascar which reported that among the helminths co-infections,
Ascaris lumbricoides had the highest prevalence of 77% [
14]. In our study
, Plasmodium falciparum malaria infected individual expressed significantly higher levels of IFN-γ (47.7 pg/ml) as compared to health controls (8.8 pg/ml) and soil borne helminths infected individuals (22.8 pg/ml). This is in agreement with a study done in south East Asia and elsewhere which reported that
Plasmodium falciparum malaria expressed higher IFN-γ levels (Doolan et al. [
27]; Luty et al. [
42]). These higher levels of IFN-γ have been associated with protective role of the cytokine against
P. falciparum malaria [
27,
35]. This effect has been attributed to the monocyte-macrophage activating capacity of IFN-γ, with rapid killing of the malarial blood-stage parasites by reactive oxygen and nitrogen intermediates [
43,
44]. Also animal models of malaria have been associated with increased production of IFN-γ which has been associated with a favourable outcome of the disease [
26]. Soil borne helminths infected individuals expressed higher levels of IL-10 (73.86 pg/ml) as compared to
Plasmodium falciparum malaria (33.64 pg/ml) and healthy individuals (26.09 pg/ml). This is probably because IL-10 is a key anti-inflammatory cytokine protective against helminth infections that cause inflammation [
45]. Also soil borne helminths infected individuals expressed the highest levels of TGF-β (2338 pg/ml) as compared to
Plasmodium falciparum malaria infected individuals (772 pg/ml) and healthy controls (424.6 pg/ml). This is probably because TGF-β has been attributed to wound healing of the intestinal mucosa during tissue repair caused by helminths in the gut [
32,
46]. TNF-α and IL-6 levels showed no significant difference across groups and this is in agreement with previous studies done by Franca and colleagues that reported that TNF-α and IL-6 cytokines are not associated with
Plasmodium falciparum malaria and soil borne helminths infected individuals [
47]. This is probably because the TNF-α is a key cytokine in cerebral malaria [
48] and probably the patients we examined that time none had cerebral malaria. Also the higher levels of IL-10 and TGF-β expressed in soil borne helminths infected individuals could have down regulated the production of TNF-α levels [
30,
49]. Lack of significant difference across groups in IL-6 could probably be because the IL-6 is not involved in modulation of the disease both in
Plasmodium falciparum malaria infected individuals and soil borne helminths infected individuals. Co-infected individuals expressed significantly higher levels of IL-10 (304 pg/ml) as compared to
Plasmodium falciparum malaria infected individuals (11.57 pg/ml) and soil borne helminths infected individuals (77.01 pg/ml). Results from this study are in agreement with a previous study by Hartgers who reported high expression of IL-10 in co-infected individuals [
50]. Up regulation of IL-10 in co-infections is probably indicative that co-infected individuals don’t lose the protective role of the IL-10 against soil borne helminths during infection. This is in agreement with the role of gut helminth in modulation of TH2 cytokine like responses that lead to worm expulsion [
51,
52]. Co-infected individuals expressed higher levels of IL-6 (100.9 pg/ml) as compared to
Plasmodium falciparum malaria infected individuals (63.7 pg/ml) and soil borne helminths infected individuals (45.37 pg/ml). This is because IL-6 has been shown to possess both pro and anti-inflammatory features [
53,
54]. Soil borne helminths infected individuals expressed higher levels of TGF-β (2338 pg/ml) as compared to
Plasmodium falciparum malaria (772.7 pg/ml) and co-infected individuals (939.2 pg/ml).This down regulation of TGF-β in co-infections is indicative that co-infected individuals lose the protective role of TGF-β against soil borne helminths during infection. IFN-γ and TNF-α levels showed no significance across groups. This is probably because the higher levels of IL-10 in co-infections and soil borne helminths down regulates IFN-γ by supressing T cells from producing IFN-γ hence the decrease [
24,
44]. Also TGF-β may down regulates production of TNF-α in soil borne helminths [
33]. And lastly TNF-α is probably not involved in modulation of malaria, soil borne helminth and co-infections of both diseases.