Introduction
Materials and methods
Study design and sample
Assessment of diet quality
Calculation of the HEI-2005 and HEI-2010 scores
Statistical analysis
Results
Socio-demographic and nutritional characteristics
Males (n = 183) | Females (n = 311) | |
---|---|---|
Age (years), mean (SD) | 31.9 ± 11.7 | 33.5 ± 10.2 |
t = −1.540; p = 0.124
| ||
BMI (kg/m2), mean (SD) | 24.9 ± 4.0 | 25.1 ± 5.2 |
t = −0.553; p = 0.580
| ||
Educational status, n (%) | Males | Females |
Illiterate | - | 13 (4.2) |
No schooling, literate | 5 (2.7) | 4 (1.3) |
Basic/primary school | 22 (12.0) | 105 (33.8) |
Secondary school | 24 (13.1) | 29 (9.3) |
High school | 88 (48.1) | 107 (34.4) |
University | 44 (24.0) | 53 (17.0) |
χ
2
= 40.035; p = 0.000
| ||
Energy and Nutrients**, mean (SD) | Males | Females |
Energy (kcal) | 1906.5 (785.2) | 1571.4 (696.2)* |
Total protein (g) | 69.1 (33.2) | 52.3 (22.8)* |
Protein (% energy) | 14.8 (4.7) | 13.6 (3.8)* |
Total fat (g) | 65.4 (31.0) | 57.9 (29.1)* |
Fat (% energy) | 31.0 (8.3) | 33.4 (9.9)* |
SFA (g) | 23.4 (13.8) | 19.5 (11.1)* |
MUFA (g) | 23.0 (10.8) | 20.1 (10.3)* |
PUFA (g) | 14.8 (10.7) | 15.02 (11.2) |
Dietary cholesterol (mg) | 214.4 (147.7) | 167.9 (135.0)* |
Carbohydrate (g) | 252.3 (116.9) | 201.0 (97.9) |
Carbohydrate (% energy) | 52.7 (9.1) | 51.3 (9.8) |
Fibre (g) | 20.3 (10.3) | 18.4 (8.9)* |
Vitamin A (μg) | 890.3 (637.9) | 869.2 (857.6) |
Vitamin E (mg) | 14.8 (13.2) | 15.4 (11.9) |
Tiamin (mg) | 0.97 (0.8) | 0.78 (0.4)* |
Riboflavin (mg) | 1.43 (1.5) | 1.07 (0.4)* |
Niasin (mg) | 12.2 (8.1) | 9.4 (5.9)* |
Vitamin B6 (mg) | 1.3 (0.6) | 1.2 (0.5)* |
Folate (μg) | 321.0 (142.1) | 281.9 (127.9)* |
Vitamin B12 (μg) | 3.5 (3.4) | 2.4 (1.9)* |
Vitamin C (mg) | 99.7 (89.6) | 105.9 (84.1) |
Calcium (mg) | 603.6 (341.5) | 521.3 (268.2)* |
Iron (mg) | 11.3 (7.6) | 9.6 (4.9)* |
Zinc (mg) | 9.5 (5.5) | 7.5 (3.4)* |
Comparison of diet quality according to two version of Healthy Eating Indices
Gender | Education level (years) | Age group (years) | BMI classification | |||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Males | Females | ≤8 | >8 | 19-30 | 31-50 | >51 | Underweight | Normal | Overweight | |
(n:183) | (n:311) | (n:202) | (n:292) | (n:236) | (n:226) | (n:32) | (n:24) | (n:245) | (n:225) | |
HEI-2005 | Mean ± SD | Mean ± SD | Mean ± SD | Mean ± SD | Mean ± SD | Mean ± SD | Mean ± SD | Mean ± SD | Mean ± SD | Mean ± SD |
Total fruit | 2.2 ± 1.9 | 2.7 ± 2.0* | 2.7 ± 1.9 | 2.4 ± 2.0 | 2.4 ± 2.0a
| 2.5 ± 1.9a,b
| 3.2 ± 1.8b
| 2.6 ± 2.3 | 2.4 ± 2.0 | 2.6 ± 1.9 |
Whole fruit | 2.9 ± 2.2 | 3.3 ± 2.1 | 3.4 ± 2.0 | 2.9 ± 2.2* | 2.9 ± 2.2a
| 3.2 ± 2.1b
| 4.0 ± 1.8b
| 2.9 ± 2.2 | 2.9 ± 2.2 | 3.4 ± 2.0 |
Total vegetables | 2.5 ± 1.8 | 3.1 ± 1.8* | 3.0 ± 1.7 | 2.8 ± 1.8 | 2.7 ± 1.8 | 3.0 ± 1.8 | 3.5 ± 1.8 | 2.7 ± 1.7 | 2.7 ± 1.8 | 3.1 ± 1.8 |
Dark green and orange vegetables and legumes | 2.1 ± 1.9 | 2.6 ± 2.1* | 2.7 ± 2.1 | 2.2 ± 2.0* | 1.9 ± 1.9a
| 2.8 ± 2.0b
| 3.4 ± 2.1b
| 1.7 ± 1.9a
| 1.9 ± 1.9a
| 2.9 ± 2.1b
|
Whole grains | 4.9 ± 0.1 | 4.8 ± 0.6* | 4.9 ± 0.6 | 4.9 ± 0.3 | 4.9 ± 0.4 | 4.9 ± 0.5 | 4.9 ± 0.5 | 4.9 ± 0.3 | 4.9 ± 0.3 | 4.9 ± 0.6 |
Total grains | 0.0 ± 0.0 | 0.1 ± 0.3 | 0.0 ± 0.4 | 0.0 ± 0.0 | 0.0 ± 0.3 | 0.0 ± 0.0 | 0.0 ± 0.0 | 0.0 ± 0.0 | 0.0 ± 0.0 | 0.0 ± 0.3 |
Milk | 2.9 ± 2.5 | 3.4 ± 2.9 | 3.2 ± 2.9 | 3.2 ± 2.7 | 2.8 ± 2.6a
| 3.6 ± 2.8b
| 4.0 ± 3.1b
| 2.2 ± 2.3 | 3.1 ± 2.6 | 3.5 ± 2.9 |
Meat and beans | 6.6 ± 3.7 | 6.4 ± 3.9 | 6.3 ± 4.0 | 6.6 ± 3.7 | 6.3 ± 3.9 | 6.7 ± 3.8 | 5.9 ± 4.1 | 6.5 ± 3.7 | 6.2 ± 3.8 | 6.7 ± 3.9 |
Oils | 6.9 ± 4.6 | 7.6 ± 4.3 | 7.5 ± 4.4 | 7.2 ± 4.5 | 6.7 ± 4.7a
| 7.8 ± 4.2b
| 8.8 ± 3.4b
| 7.5 ± 4.4a,b
| 6.8 ± 4.7a
| 7.9 ± 4.1b
|
Saturated fats | 6.9 ± 2.1 | 6.8 ± 2.0 | 6.9 ± 1.9 | 6.7 ± 2.1 | 6.5 ± 2.0a
| 7.0 ± 2.0b
| 7.6 ± 1.9b
| 6.3 ± 1.9a,b
| 6.5 ± 2.0a
| 7.2 ± 2.0b
|
Sodium | 2.3 ± 3.6 | 4.1 ± 4.3* | 4.1 ± 4.2 | 2.9 ± 4.0* | 3.6 ± 4.2 | 3.1 ± 4.1 | 4.0 ± 4.2 | 4.8 ± 4.4 | 3.7 ± 4.1 | 3.0 ± 4.1 |
Calories from SOFAAS | 13.4 ± 8.9 | 16.6 ± 7.0* | 16.1 ± 7.5 | 14.9 ± 8.2 | 13.9 ± 8.7a
| 16.6 ± 7.0b
| 18.0 ± 5.9b
| 14.9 ± 8.5 | 14.7 ± 8.3 | 16.3 ± 7.4 |
Total HEI-2005 score | 54.6 ± 16.4 | 62.9 ± 15.0* | 58.3 ± 13.6 | 54.7 ± 14.0* | 52.8 ± 14.9a
| 58.5 ± 12.5b
| 64.0 ± 8.7b
| 55.4 ± 9.2a,b
| 53.9 ± 14.7a
| 58.6 ± 13.1b
|
HEI-2010 | Mean ± SD | Mean ± SD | Mean ± SD | Mean ± SD | Mean ± SD | Mean ± SD | Mean ± SD | Mean ± SD | Mean ± SD | Mean ± SD |
Total fruit | 2.2 ± 1.9 | 2.7 ± 2.0* | 2.7 ± 1.9 | 2.4 ± 2.0 | 2.4 ± 2.0a
| 2.5 ± 1.9a,b
| 3.2 ± 1.8b
| 2.6 ± 2.3 | 2.3 ± 2.0 | 2.6 ± 1.9 |
Whole fruit | 2.9 ± 2.2 | 3.3 ± 2.1 | 3.4 ± 2.0 | 2.9 ± 2.2* | 2.9 ± 2.2a
| 3.2 ± 2.1b
| 4.0 ± 1.8b
| 2.9 ± 2.2 | 2.9 ± 2.2 | 3.4 ± 2.0 |
Total vegetables | 2.5 ± 1.8 | 3.1 ± 1.8* | 3.0 ± 1.7 | 2.8 ± 1.8 | 2.7 ± 1.8 | 3.0 ± 1.8 | 3.5 ± 1.8 | 2.7 ± 1.7 | 2.7 ± 1.8 | 3.1 ± 1.8 |
Greens and beans | 2.8 ± 2.1 | 3.2 ± 2.1* | 3.3 ± 2.1 | 2.9 ± 2.1* | 2.7 ± 2.1a
| 3.3 ± 2.0b
| 3.9 ± 1.8b
| 2.7 ± 2.3a,b
| 2.7 ± 2.1a
| 3.4 ± 1.9b
|
Whole grains | 0.0 ± 0.0 | 0.1 ± 0.3 | 0.0 ± 0.4 | 0.0 ± 0.0 | 0.0 ± 0.3 | 0.0 ± 0.0 | 0.0 ± 0.0 | 0.0 ± 0.0 | 0.0 ± 0.0 | 0.0 ± 0.3 |
Dairy | 2.6 ± 1.7 | 2.7 ± 1.8 | 2.7 ± 1.8 | 2.6 ± 1.8 | 2.4 ± 1.7a
| 2.9 ± 1.8b
| 3.2 ± 1.9b
| 1.9 ± 1.6 | 2.6 ± 1.8 | 2.8 ± 1.8 |
Total protein foods | 3.6 ± 1.6 | 3.5 ± 1.8 | 3.5 ± 1.8 | 3.6 ± 1.7 | 3.4 ± 1.8 | 3.7 ± 1.7 | 3.5 ± 1.7 | 3.7 ± 1.5 | 3.4 ± 1.8 | 3.7 ± 1.7 |
Seafood and plant proteins | 3.3 ± 2.2 | 3.7 ± 2.0 | 3.7 ± 2.0 | 3.4 ± 2.1 | 3.2 ± 2.2a
| 3.8 ± 1.9b
| 4.3 ± 1.6b
| 3.07 ± 2.3a,b
| 3.3 ± 2.2a
| 3.9 ± 1.9b
|
Fatty acids | 0.1 ± 0.5 | 0.2 ± 1.2* | 0.2 ± 1.2 | 0.2 ± 0.9 | 0.2 ± 1.1 | 0.2 ± 0.9 | 0.0 ± 0.1 | 0.0 ± 0.0 | 0.2 ± 0.9 | 0.2 ± 1.1 |
Refined grains | 0.9 ± 1.7 | 1.6 ± 2.1* | 1.2 ± 1.9 | 1.4 ± 2.0 | 1.4 ± 2.0 | 1.3 ± 1.9 | 1.4 ± 1.9 | 2.3 ± 2.4a
| 1.3 ± 1.9b
| 1.3 ± 1.9b
|
Sodium | 2.3 ± 3.6 | 4.1 ± 4.3* | 4.1 ± 4.2 | 2.9 ± 4.0* | 3.6 ± 4.2 | 3.1 ± 4.1 | 4.0 ± 4.2 | 4.8 ± 4.4 | 3.7 ± 4.1 | 3.0 ± 4.1 |
Empty calories | 13.3 ± 8.9 | 16.5 ± 7.0* | 15.9 ± 7.5 | 14.8 ± 8.2 | 13.8 ± 8.7a
| 16.5 ± 7.0b
| 17.9 ± 5.9b
| 14.7 ± 8.4 | 14.5 ± 8.3 | 16.2 ± 7.4 |
Total HEI-2010 score | 37.4 ± 15.3 | 46.1 ± 13.9* | 43.9 ± 13.2 | 40.0 ± 13.9* | 38.7 ± 14.6a
| 43.6 ± 12.4b
| 48.9 ± 10.3b
| 41.5 ± 9.5a,b
| 39.7 ± 14.4a
| 43.7 ± 13.1b
|
Diet quality of individuals according to baseline characteristics
Gender | Education Level (years) | Age group (years) | BMI classification | |||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Males | Females | ≤8 | >8 | 19-30 | 31-50 | ≥51 | Underweight | Normal | Overweight | |
HEI-2005 | ||||||||||
Poor | 77 (42.1) | 74 (23.8) | 50 (24.8) | 101 (34.6) | 93 (39.4)a
| 54 (23.9)b
| 4 (12.5)b
| 8 (33.3)a, b
| 93 (38.0)a
| 50 (22.2)b
|
Needs improvement | 105 (57.4) | 231 (74.3) | 149 (73.8) | 187 (64.0) | 138 (58.5)a
| 170 (75.2)b
| 28 (87.5)b
| 16 (66.7)a, b
| 147 (60.0)a
| 173 (76.9)b
|
Good | 1 (0.5) | 6 (1.9) | 3 (1.5) | 4 (1.4) | 5 (2.1)a
| 2 (0.9)b
| - | - | 5 (2.0)a
| 2 (0.9)b
|
χ
2
= 18.990; p = 0.000
|
χ
2
= 5.450; p = 0.066
|
χ
2
= 21.138; p = 0.000
|
χ
2
= 15.947; p = 0.003
| |||||||
HEI-2010 | ||||||||||
Poor | 149 (81.4) | 200 (64.3) | 130 (64.4) | 219 (75.0) | 184 (78.0)a
| 150 (66.4)b
| 15 (46.9)c
| 21 (87.5)a
| 184 (75.1)a
| 144 (64.0)b
|
Needs improvement | 34 (18.6) | 111 (35.7) | 72 (35.6) | 73 (25.0) | 52 (22.0)a
| 76 (33.6)b
| 17 (53.1)c
| 3 (12.5)a
| 61 (24.9)a
| 81 (36.0)b
|
Good | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - |
χ
2
= 16.269; p = 0.000
|
χ
2
= 6.523; p = 0.011
|
χ
2
= 16.809; p = 0.000
|
χ
2
= 10.426; p = 0.005
|