Introduction
Background and conceptual model
Product demand
H1: Consumers who perceive that a higher priced product is associated with a better quality product (price quality) will have less favorable attitudes toward contraband tobacco and these attitudes will mediate the relationship between price quality and behavioral intentions.H2: Consumers who perceive that the risk (perceived risk) associated with counterfeit/contraband products, in general, is high will have less favorable attitudes toward contraband tobacco and these attitudes will mediate the relationship between perceived risk and behavioral intentionsH3: Consumers who are prefer to avoid taking risks (risk averseness) when making purchases will have less favorable attitudes toward contraband tobacco and these attitudes will mediate the relationship between risk averseness and behavioral intentions.
Non-buyers %
|
Buyers %
|
N (% sample)
|
x
2
| ||
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Sex | Male | 51.4 | 48.6 | 245 (50.7) | p < .000 |
Female | 70.2 | 29.8 | 238 (49.3) | ||
Race | White | 63.0 | 37.0 | 357 (73.9) | p < .031 |
Black | 55.2 | 44.8 | 29 (6.0) | ||
NA/FN | 70.0 | 30.0 | 10 (2.1) | ||
Asian | 41.8 | 58.2 | 55 (11.4) | ||
Multiracial/Other | 68.8 | 31.3 | 32 (6.6) | ||
Hispanic | Yes | 43.3 | 56.7 | 60 (12.4) | p = .003 |
No | 56.7 | 36.9 | 423 (87.6) | ||
Age | 18-25 | 52.8 | 47.2 | 125 (25.9) | p = .223 |
26-30 | 63.6 | 36.4 | 129 (26.7) | ||
31-40 | 63.0 | 37.0 | 119 (24.6) | ||
40+ | 63.6 | 36.4 | 110 (22.8) | ||
SDS | Low | 60.7 | 39.3 | 61 (12.6) | p = .128 |
Medium | 57.2 | 42.8 | 278 (57.6) | ||
High | 67.4 | 32.6 | 144 (29.8) |
Social norms and personality factors
H4: Consumers who have high levels of integrity will have less favorable attitudes toward contraband tobacco and these attitudes will mediate the relationship between integrity and behavioral intentionsH5: Consumers who value personal gratification will have less favorable attitudes toward contraband tobacco and these attitudes will mediate the relationship between personal gratification and behavioral intentionsH6: Consumers who perceive their significant others (subjective norms) would approve of the behavior will have more favorable attitudes toward contraband tobacco and these attitudes will mediate the relationship between subjective norms and behavioral intentionsH7: Having previously purchased contraband tobacco will be associated with more favorable attitudes toward contraband tobacco and behavioral intentions.
H8: Consumers with positive attitudes about contraband tobacco will have more favorable attitudes toward contraband tobacco higher behavioral intentions to purchase contraband products.
Methods
Measures
Contraband tobacco
Marlowe-crowne social desirability scale
Indicators of contraband tobacco purchase/use
Analyses
Scale
|
Non-buyer (60.7%)
|
Buyer (39.3%)
|
T
-Test
| |
---|---|---|---|---|
Mean (SD)
|
Mean (SD)
| |||
PQ1 | Generally speaking, the higher the price of a product, the higher the quality | 2.99 (1.107) | 2.81 (1.042) | t(481) = 1.75, p = 0.08 |
PQ2 | The price of a product is a good indicator of its quality | 2.89 (1.118) | 2.83 (1.040) | t(481) = 0.55, p = 0.58 |
PQ3 | You always have to pay a bit more for the best | 2.54 (1.148) | 2.39 (1.106) | t(481) = 1.34, p = 0.18 |
RA1 | When I buy something, I prefer not taking risks | 2.04 (0.869) | 2.19 (0.870) | t(481) = -1.88, p = 0.06 |
RA2 | I like to be sure the product is a good one before buying it | 1.76 (0.643) | 1.86 (0.736) | t(481) = -1.55, p = 0.12 |
RA3 | I don’t like to feel uncertainty when I buy something | 1.77 (0.735) | 1.97 (0.806) | t(481) = -2.85, p < 0.01 |
SN1 | My relatives and friends approve my decision to buy counterfeited products | 2.20 (1.000) | 2.61 (1.077) | t(481) = -4.17, p < 0.00 |
SN2 | My relative and friends think that I should buy counterfeited products | 2.09 (0.980) | 2.44 (1.096) | t(371.34) = -3.57, p < 0.00 |
Considering today, what are the chances that you…
| ||||
BI1 | …think about a counterfeited product as a choice when buying something | 1.85 (1.054) | 2.45 (1.134) | t(382.24) = -5.90, p < 0.00 |
BI2 | …buy a counterfeited product | 1.72 (0.950) | 2.33 (1.108) | t(359.22) = -6.29, p < 0.00 |
BI3 | …recommend to friends and relatives that they buy a counterfeited product | 1.59 (0.904) | 2.11 (1.105) | t(346.60) = -5.42, p < 0.00 |
BI4 | …say favorable things about counterfeited products | 1.75 (0.970) | 2.31 (1.161) | t(352.21) = -5.51, p < 0.00 |
PR1 | The risk that I take when I buy a counterfeited product is high | 2.10 (1.052) | 2.50 (1.130) | t(382.84) = -3.95, p < 0.00 |
PR2 | There is high probability that the product doesn’t work | 1.94 (0.899) | 2.32 (1.006) | t(370.79) = -4.29, p < 0.00 |
PR3 | Spending money on a counterfeited product might be a bad decision | 1.65 (0.787) | 2.03 (0.934) | t(481) = -4.79, p < 0.00 |
INT1 | I consider honesty as an important quality for one’s character | 1.49 (0.676) | 1.75 (0.748) | t(481) = -3.85, p < 0.00 |
INT2 | I consider it very important that people be polite | 1.68 (0.735) | 1.88 (0.811) | t(481) = -2.80, p < 0.00 |
INT3 | I admire responsible people | 1.55 (0.674) | 1.82 (0.868) | t(481) = -3.78, p < 0.00 |
INT4 | I like people that have self-control | 1.60 (0.679) | 1.87 (0.835) | t(481) = -3.91, p < 0.00 |
PG | I always attempt to a have a sense of accomplishment | 1.70 (0.734) | 2.02 (0.911) | t(481) = -4.15, p < 0.00 |
Attitude toward contraband tobacco adapted scale
α = 0.906
| ||||
ACT1 | Considering price, I prefer contraband cigarettes | 1.90 (0.876) | 2.49 (1.032) | t(356.41) = -6.49, p < 0.00 |
ACT2 | I like shopping for contraband cigarettes | 2.04 (1.091) | 2.79 (1.241) | t(366.37) = -6.83, p < 0.00 |
ACT3 | Buying contraband cigarettes generally benefits the consumer | 2.68 (1.217) | 3.24 (1.160) | t(481) = -5.04, p < 0.00 |
ACT4 | There’s nothing wrong with purchasing contraband tobacco | 1.72 (0.845) | 2.29 (1.115) | t(326.68) = -6.33, p < .0.00 |
ACT5 | Generally speaking, buying contraband cigarettes is a better choice | 2.22 (1.117) | 2.90 (1.180) | t(481) = -6.37, p < 0.00 |
Results
Factor
|
ATC
|
PQ
|
INT/PG
|
BI
|
SN
|
PR
|
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
ATC | -- | |||||
PQ | −0.024 | -- | ||||
INT/PG | −0.352 | −0.068 | -- | |||
BI | −0.599 | 0.021 | 0.412 | -- | ||
SN | 0.524 | −0.052 | −0.359 | −0.489 | -- | |
PR | 0.482 | 0.017 | −0.490 | −0.536 | 0.374 | -- |
Dimensionality
Reliability and validity of the measurement model
Scales
|
CR
|
AVE
|
MSV
|
ASV
|
BI
|
ACT
|
PGI
|
PQ
|
SN
|
PR
|
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
BI
| 0.936 | 0.786 | 0.468 | 0.270 | 0.886 | |||||
ACT
| 0.909 | 0.668 | 0.468 | 0.292 | 0.684 | 0.818 | ||||
PGI
| 0.883 | 0.604 | 0.364 | 0.179 | 0.441 | 0.449 | 0.777 | |||
PQ
| 0.886 | 0.722 | 0.004 | 0.001 | −0.023 | −0.002 | 0.043 | 0.850 | ||
SN
| 0.915 | 0.843 | 0.383 | 0.200 | 0.495 | 0.619 | 0.364 | −0.062 | 0.918 | |
PR
| 0.774 | 0.537 | 0.441 | 0.289 | 0.664 | 0.640 | 0.603 | 0.007 | 0.483 | 0.733 |
Structural model
Hypothesis
|
Direct Effect without Mediator (p-val)
|
Direct Effect with Mediator (p-val)
|
Standardized Indirect Beta (p-val)
|
Mediation observed
|
---|---|---|---|---|
BCT → ATC → BI | 0.125 (.001) | 0.067 (.110) | .066 (.001) | Full Mediation |
SN → ATC → BI | 0.219 (.001) | 0.063 (.228) | .156 (.001) | Full Mediation |
PR → ATC → BI | 0.521 (.001) | 0.377 (.001) | .153 (.001) | Partial Mediation |