Hyperglycemia and insulin resistance have been associated with a worse outcome in sepsis. Although tight glycemic control through insulin therapy has been shown to reduce morbidity and mortality rates, the effect of intensive insulin therapy in patients with severe sepsis is controversial because of the increased risk of serious adverse events related to hypoglycemia. Recently, knowledge about diacerhein, an anthraquinone drug with powerful antiinflammatory properties, revealed that this drug improves insulin sensitivity, mediated by the reversal of chronic subclinical inflammation. The aim of the present study was to evaluate whether the antiinflammatory effects of diacerhein after onset of sepsis-induced glycemic alterations is beneficial and whether the survival rate is prolonged in this situation.
Methods
Diffuse sepsis was induced by cecal ligation and puncture surgery (CLP) in male Wistar rats. Blood glucose and inflammatory cytokine levels were assessed 24 hours after CLP. The effect of diacerhein on survival of septic animals was investigated in parallel with insulin signaling and its modulators in liver, muscle, and adipose tissue.
Results
Here we demonstrated that diacerhein treatment improves survival during peritoneal-induced sepsis and inhibits sepsis-induced insulin resistance by improving insulin signaling via increased insulin-receptor substrate-1-associated phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase activity and Akt phosphorylation. Diacerhein also decreases the activation of endoplasmic reticulum stress signaling that involves upregulation of proinflammatory pathways, such as the I kappa B kinase and c-Jun NH2-terminal kinase, which blunts insulin-induced insulin signaling in liver, muscle, and adipose tissue. Additionally, our data show that this drug promoted downregulation of proinflammatory signaling cascades that culminate in transcription of immunomodulatory factors such interleukin (IL)-1β, IL-6, and tumor necrosis factor-α.
Conclusions
This study demonstrated that diacerhein treatment increases survival and attenuates the inflammatory response with a significant effect on insulin sensitivity. On the basis of efficacy and safety profile, diacerhein represents a novel antiinflammatory therapy for management of insulin resistance in sepsis and a potential approach for future clinical trials.
The online version of this article (doi:10.1186/cc11478) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.
The authors would like to retract this article because it was brought to the Editors' attention that some figures appear to be similar to those within the article and in previous publications.
The similarity between the figures within this article and previous publications, are specified in the Retraction Note (doi:10.1186/s13054-016-1453-8).
An investigation by The University of Campinas (UNICAMP) in São Paulo, Brazil concluded that there was no evidence of research misconduct.
The authors maintain that the similarities do not affect the interpretation or conclusions of their study.
The authors accept that the preparation of the figures fell below the standard of publication.
They will seek to publish the results in a new manuscript version, with new experiments and figures, corroborating the findings of this work.
Author, Jose Carvalheira agreed to the retraction and did not disagree with the wording of the retraction.
Competing interests
The authors declare that they have no competing interests.
Authors' contributions
KLC carried out the studies, analyzed data, and drafted the manuscript; ACAC carried out the studies and drafted the manuscript; FCM performed the experiments; BMC performed the experiments and drafted the manuscript; and DG carried out ELISA measurements. JBCC participated in the design of the study, MJAS designed studies, analyzed data, and drafted the manuscript. All authors read and approved the final manuscript.
Abkürzungen
Akt
protein kinase B (PKB)
AP-1
activator protein 1
CLP
cecal ligation and puncture
DIA
diacerhein
eIF2α
eukaryotic translation initiation factor 2α
ELISA
enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay
IKK
I kappa B kinase
IL1β
interleukin 1β
IR
insulin receptor
IRE1
inositol-requiring enzyme 1
IRS1
insulin receptor substrate 1
ITT
insulin tolerance test
JNK
c-Jun NH2-terminal kinase
KITT
glucose disappearance rate
LPS
lipopolysaccharide
NF-κB
nuclear factor kappa B
PERK
PKR-like endoplasmic reticulum kinase
PI3K
phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase
SDS-PAGE
sodium dodecylsulfate polyacrylamide gel
ShD
sham/diacerhein
TNF-α
tumor necrosis factor-α
UPR
unfolded protein response
Veh
vehicle.
Introduction
Sepsis is defined as a systemic inflammatory response syndrome caused by the body's response to an infection [1]. During the onset of sepsis, the inflammatory system becomes hyperactive, leading to a production of proinflammatory molecules and cytokine release [2], which contribute to septic shock, multiple organ failure, and death. Hyperglycemia and insulin resistance occur as a consequence of the metabolic effects of stress hormones and the overproduction of proinflammatory mediators in sepsis [3, 4]. In this regard, tissue insulin resistance may be used as an important indicator of the resultant actions of the proinflammatory cytokines, being a tissue marker of the severity of sepsis before organ failure. In addition, this hyperglycemia may lead to inflammatory stress [5, 6] and aggravate sepsis, as previously described [7, 8].
Both bacterial components such as lipopolysaccharide (LPS), and proinflammatory cytokines such as interleukin (IL)-1β, IL-6, and tumor necrosis factor (TNF)-α, resulting from the immune response to sepsis, may activate intracellular mechanisms associated with insulin resistance, such as the IKKβ/NF-κB, and JNK pathways. JNK has been shown to promote insulin resistance through serine phosphorylation of IRS-1, preventing signaling from the insulin receptor. Furthermore, IKKβ induces insulin resistance through activation of NF-κB, which in turn induces the transcription of several genes related to proinflammatory cytokine release (IL-1β, TNF-α, IL-6, and IL-8) [9]. IKK activation leads to phosphorylation, ubiquitination, and degradation of IκB, which releases NF-κB, allowing it to translocate to the nucleus and activate transcription of target genes [10].
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In this regard, we believe that the evaluation of insulin signaling pathways through PI3K/Akt in liver, muscle, and adipose tissue may be important indicators of this overreaction at the tissue level, and the improvement in this signaling pathway, induced by some treatments, in parallel with a decrease in tissue inflammation, may predict the effectiveness of this treatment. Substantial resources have been invested in developing and evaluating potential therapies for sepsis and in increasing knowledge of systemic inflammation and multiple-system organ failure [11, 12], although pharmacologic interventions available now are not effective in decreasing the high mortality rates.
Diacerhein (4,5-diacetoxy-9,10-dihydro-9,10-dioco-2-anthracenecarboxylic acid) is an anthraquinone that shows antiinflammatory properties, in addition to moderate analgesic and antipyretic characteristics [11], and is used in the treatment of osteoarthritis. Clinical studies have suggested that diacerhein can exert beneficial effects on the symptoms of osteoarthritis, including antiarthritic and chondroprotective effects [13]. Rhein, the active metabolite of diacerhein, has been demonstrated to inhibit the synthesis and activity of proinflammatory cytokines such as TNF-α, IL-6, and IL-1β [14‐17]. The compound also acts directly on inflammatory cells, inhibiting superoxide anion production by human neutrophils, release of lysosomal enzymes, chemotaxis, and phagocytic activity of neutrophils and macrophages [18‐22].
Further studies have suggested that diacerhein inhibits nitric oxide production induced by the reduction of IL-1β [23, 24]. Besides its inhibitory effects on proinflammatory genes, rhein has been shown to have antitumor activity on several cancer cell lines [25, 26]. Moreover, studies suggest that diacerhein and rhein inhibit NF-κB activation and expression of NF-κB-dependent genes [24]. In this regard, diacerhein has the potential to improve insulin resistance in sepsis and to reduce the overreaction of the inflammatory response, without inducing hypoglycemia.
The aim of the present study was to investigate whether diacerhein, by reducing tissue activation of inflammatory pathways, can improve insulin signaling and survival in sepsis.
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Materials and methods
Anti-IR-β (α-IR), anti-IRS-1, anti-Akt, anti-caspase-3 anti-p-IR, anti-p-IRS-1, anti-p-IKKβ, anti-p-IκBa, anti-NF-κB, anti-p-JNK, anti-JNK1, anti-p-PERK, and anti-IRE1 antibodies were obtained from Santa Cruz Technology (Santa Cruz, CA, USA). Anti-p-Akt was from Cell Signaling Technology (Beverly, MA, USA). Anti-p-IRS-1ser307 was obtained from Upstate Biotechnology, Inc. (Lake Placid, NY, USA). Anti-p-eIF2α was from Abcam (Cambridge, MA, USA). Diacerhein was kindly provided by TRB-Pharma (Campinas, Brazil). Human recombinant insulin was from Eli Lilly and Co. (Indianapolis, IN, USA). Routine reagents were purchased from Sigma Chemical Co. (St. Louis, MO, USA), unless otherwise specified.
Animal care and experimental procedures
All experiments were approved by the Ethics Committee at the University of Campinas, CEEA/Unicamp 1267-1. Male Wistar Hannover rats (8 weeks old) were maintained in a room with 12-hour day/night cycles and room temperature of 21°C, with food and water ad libitum.
Polymicrobial sepsis was induced by subjecting rats to CLP, as previously described [27], and is a commonly used surgical technique in rodents and thought to be a clinically relevant animal model of sepsis. Anesthesia was induced by i.p. administration of ketamine (80 mg/kg BW) and xylazine (15 mg/kg). Through a 1-cm abdominal midline incision, the cecum was ligated below the ileocecal valve, with careful attention to avoid obstruction of the ileum or colon. The cecum was subjected to four ''through-and through'' perforations (20-gauge needle). The abdominal incision was closed in layers. Sham-operated rats underwent the same procedure, except for ligation and perforation of the cecum. All procedures were performed under sterile conditions. Wistar rats were randomly divided into four groups; diacerhein-treated sepsis (Sepsis/Dia), vehicle-treated sepsis (Sepsis/Veh), diacerhein-treated sham (Sham), and vehicle-treated sham (Control).
Diacerhein-administration protocol
Dried diacerhein was diluted in 0.01 M PBS 3% DMSO, to a final concentration of 18 mg/ml. Three hours after the induction of sepsis and every 24 hours, rats received diacerhein (100 mg/kg/day) or an equivalent volume of vehicle by oral gavage.
Preliminary experiments using lower doses of diacerhein (10 and 20 mg/kg/day) showed no beneficial effects on survival curves, nor even on insulin sensitivity in septic animals. The chosen dose (100 mg/kg/day) was based on a previous study [28]. This dose is safe and lower than the LD50 for rats (980 mg/kg). The only adverse effect observed was softening of fecal contents, given the anthraquinone nature of diacerhein. The oral route of administration is indicated for this drug, which is promptly deacetylated to rhein, its active metabolite, soon after its administration.
Sepsis-survival studies
For survival studies, Wistar rats (n = 15 per group) were induced to sepsis, allowed to recover, and then treated with diacerhein (100 mg/kg/day) or placebo 3 hours after surgery and then once per day, and were then observed twice per day. To avoid interference, these animals were not submitted to any other experimental procedures. The overall difference in survival rate was determined with the Kaplan-Meier test followed by a log-rank test.
Homeostasis model assessment
To perform the Insulin Tolerance Test (ITT), a group of overnight-fasted rats (n = 8 per group) were treated with diacerhein or vehicle only once, 3 hours after sepsis or sham surgery. Insulin (1.5 U/kg) was administered by i.p. injection at 24 hours after surgery, and blood samples were collected at 0, 5, 10, 15, 20, 25, and 30 minutes. Blood glucose was measured by the glucose oxidase method (Optium Xceed; Abbott, Libertyville, IL, USA) as previously described [29]. The constant rate for glucose disappearance (Kitt) was calculated by using the formula 0.693/t1/2. Glucose t1/2 was calculated from the slope of the least-squares analysis of plasma glucose concentrations during the linear decay phase [30].
Tissue extraction and immunoblotting
To perform the tissue analysis 24 hours after CLP or sham surgery, other groups (n = 8 per group) were used, and the animals were treated with diacerhein or vehicle 3 hours after CLP and were then anesthetized with intraperitoneal injection of sodium thiopental and were used 10 to 15 minutes later (that is, as soon as anesthesia was assured by the loss of pedal and corneal reflexes). Five minutes after saline (0.2 ml) or insulin injection (3.8 U/kg i.p.), liver, muscle, and adipose tissue were removed, minced coarsely, and homogenized immediately in extraction buffer, as described elsewhere. NF-κB p50 activation was determined in nuclear extracts from liver, muscle, and adipose tissue. The whole-tissue extracts were subjected to SDS-PAGE and immunoblotting, as previously described [31].
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ELISA assays
Blood was collected 24 hours after CLP or sham surgery from other groups (n = 8 per group), and IL-1β, IL-6, TNF-α and NF-κB were determined by using commercially available ELISA kits (Pierce Biotechnology Inc., Rockford, IL, USA), following the instructions of the manufacturer.
Statistical analysis
Specific protein bands presented in the blots were quantified with digital densitometry (ScionCorp Inc., Frederick, MD, USA). Means ± SEMs obtained from densitometric scans, area measurements, and the values for blood cytokines and glucose were compared with ANOVA with post hoc test (Bonferroni). A value of P < 0.05 was accepted as statistically significant.
Results
Diacerhein improves survival in septic rats
To test the hypothesis that diacerhein decreases sepsis mortality, we monitored the survival in animals in which sepsis was induced via CLP. Diacerhein (100 mg/kg/day) or placebo was administered by gavage 3 hours after surgery and in sham-operated animals. No deaths occurred in the sham-operated animals, whether or not they had been treated with diacerhein. The survival curves showed a significantly improved survival (P < 0.0001) after diacerhein treatment (Figure 1A).
Figure 1
Effect of diacerhein on survival in CLP sepsis model. (A) Male Wistar rats, 8 weeks old, were given vehicle (Sepsis/Veh (■), n = 15) or diacerhein, 100 mg/kg (Sepsis/Dia (◆), n = 15), 3 hours and once a day after CLP. Survival of the rats was monitored at intervals of 12 hours for 15 days. The overall difference in survival rate between the groups with and without diacerhein was significant (P < 0.05).
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As shown in Figure 2A, septic animals were more insulin resistant than sham-operated rats, fasting plasma glucose was higher in septic rats than in the control group, and diacerhein treatment reduced both of these levels. As depicted in Figure 2B, the plasma glucose disappearance rates measured during the insulin tolerance test (Kitt), were lower in septic animals, and diacerhein treatment attenuated this alteration. Diacerhein treatment had no effect on glucose tolerance in the sham group. Taken together, these data suggest that diacerhein improves sepsis-induced insulin resistance.
Figure 2
Fasting blood glucose (A) and glucose disappearance rate (B). Data are presented as mean and SD of six to eight rats per group. *P < 0.05 versus Sham/Vehicle; #P < 0.05 (Sepsis/Veh versus Sepsis/Dia). C, Sham/Vehicle; ShD, Sham/Diacerhein; VEH, Sepsis/Vehicle; DIA, Sepsis/Diacerhein.
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Effect of diacerhein on serum levels of IL-1β, IL-6, and TNF-α
IL-1β, IL-6, and TNF-α serum levels were examined in the four groups studied. As expected, cytokine levels in the septic rats were higher than in the sham-operated rats. After diacerhein treatment, a significant decrease was found in IL-1β (Figure 3A), IL-6 (Figure 3B), and TNF-α (Figure 3C) circulating levels.
Figure 3
Serum levels of IL-6 (A), IL-6 (B), and TNF-α (C). Data are presented as mean and SD of six to eight rats per group. *P < 0.05 versus Sham/Vehicle; #P < 0.05 (Sepsis/Veh versus Sepsis/Dia). C, Sham/Vehicle; ShD, Sham/Diacerhein; VEH, Sepsis/Vehicle; DIA, Sepsis/Diacerhein. Representative blots show total and insulin-induced protein expression.
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Diacerhein improves insulin signaling in septic animals
We then examined the effects of diacerhein administration on the insulin signaling pathway in its main target tissues. In the sepsis group, insulin-induced IR and IRS-1 tyrosine phosphorylation were decreased in liver, muscle, and adipose tissue when compared with those in sham rats, and these alterations were attenuated by diacerhein (Figure 4A to 4C). Also, a decrease was found in insulin-induced Akt serine phosphorylation in liver, muscle, and adipose tissue of septic animals when compared with sham rats, and diacerhein was able to increase Akt phosphorylation (Figure 4A to 4C). The modulation in IR, IRS-1 and Akt phosphorylation induced by sepsis was independent of changes in tissue protein expression (Figure 4A to 4C). The protein concentrations of IR, IRS-1, and Akt did not change among the groups. Equal protein loading in the gels was confirmed by repeated probing of the membranes with an anti-β-actin antibody (lower panels).
Figure 4
Effects of diacerhein treatment on insulin signaling in the CLP rat. Representative blots show total protein expression and insulin-induced tyrosine phosphorylation of IRβ, IRS1, and serine phosphorylation of Akt in liver (A), adipose tissue (B), and muscle (C) of sham and septic rats. Data are presented as mean ± SEM from six to eight rats per group. *P < 0.05 versus Sham/Vehicle; #P < 0.05 (Sepsis/Veh versus Sepsis/Dia). IB, immunoblot; Sham, Sham/Vehicle; Sham+Dia, Sham/Diacerhein; Sepsis, Sepsis/Vehicle; Sepsis+Dia: Sepsis/Diacerhein.
During sepsis, the activation of proinflammatory signaling involves upregulation of intracellular inflammatory pathways, such as the IKKβ and the JNK pathways. We examined the antiinflammatory effects of diacerhein on the IKK/NF-κB pathway by monitoring the main function of IKK phosphorylation and degradation of the NF-κB inhibitor (IκBα) [32]. NF-κB was monitored through analysis of NF-κB p65 nuclear expression. As expected, IKKβ and IκB phosphorylation were increased in liver, muscle and adipose tissue of septic animals. When treated with diacerhein, septic rats showed a reduction in IKKβ and IκB phosphorylation in all tissues studied (Figure 5A through C). Likewise, we assessed the nuclear translocation of NF-κB p65 and, as expected, in nuclear tissue extracts from treated septic rats, we detected reduced expression of NF-κB p65 compared with the nontreated group (Figure 5A through C).
Figure 5
Effects of diacerhein treatment on the IKK/NF-κB pathway signaling in the CLP rat. Representative blots show the IKKβ, IκB phosphorylation, and protein expression of NF-κB in liver (A), adipose tissue (B), and muscle (C) of sham and septic rats. Blots were stripped and reprobed with β-actin (lower panels) to confirm equal loading of proteins. Data are presented as mean ± SEM from six to eight rats per group. *P < 0.05 versus Sham/Vehicle; #P < 0.05 (Sepsis/Veh versus Sepsis/Dia). IB, immunoblot; Sham, Sham/Vehicle; Sham+Dia, Sham/Diacerhein; Sepsis, Sepsis/Vehicle; Sepsis+Dia, Sepsis/Diacerhein.
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JNK activation was determined by monitoring phosphorylation of JNK1 and total expression of this protein. JNK phosphorylation in liver, muscle, and adipose tissue was increased in septic animals, and diacerhein induced a downmodulation in the phosphorylation of this serine kinase in liver and adipose tissue (Figure 6A through C). We also investigated Ser307 phosphorylation of IRS-1 in the three tissues from the four groups of rats. Ser307 phosphorylation was induced by sepsis, and the diacerhein treatment attenuated this alteration (Figure 6A through C).
Figure 6
Effects of diacerhein treatment on the JNK pathway signaling in the CLP rat. Representative blots show the JNK phosphorylation, total protein expression of JNK, and serine 307 phosphorylation of IRS1 in liver (A), adipose tissue (B), and muscle (C) of sham and septic rats. Blots were stripped and reprobed with β-actin (lower panels) to confirm equal loading of proteins. Data are presented as mean ± SEM from six to eight rats per group. *P < 0.05 versus Sham/Vehicle; #P < 0.05 (Sepsis/Veh versus Sepsis/Dia). IB, immunoblot; Sham, Sham/Vehicle; Sham+Dia, Sham/Diacerhein; Sepsis, Sepsis/Vehicle; Sepsis+Dia, Sepsis/Diacerhein.
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Previous studies showed that sepsis is also characterized by endoplasmic reticulum (ER) stress. It is clear that ER stress can also induce activation of JNK and IKKβ. We therefore investigated the effect of sepsis (treated or nontreated with diacerhein) on proteins that reflect ER stress. Our data showed that sepsis induced ER stress, with activation of the membrane kinase PERK (PKR-like endoplasmic reticulum kinase) and its substrate eIF2α (eukaryotic translation initiation factor 2α), and increased the expression of IRE1 (Figure 7A through C). Treatment with diacerhein significantly reduced the activation of IRE1, PERK, and its substrate eIF2α (Figure 7A through C). Also, we measured caspase 3, a critical effector molecule of cell death, and observed that diacerhein inhibited caspase 3 activation in liver and adipose tissue (Figure 7A through C).
Figure 7
Effects of diacerhein treatment on proteins that reflect ER stress in the CLP rat. Representative blots show the PERK, eIF2α phosphorylation, and IRE-1 expression in liver (A), adipose tissue (B), and muscle (C) of sham and septic rats. Blots were stripped and reprobed with β-actin (lower panels) to confirm equal loading of proteins. Data are presented as mean ± SEM from six to eight rats per group. *P < 0.05 versus Sham/Vehicle; #P < 0.05 (Sepsis/Veh versus Sepsis/Dia). IB, immunoblot; Sham, Sham/Vehicle; Sham+Dia, Sham/Diacerhein; Sepsis, Sepsis/Vehicle; Sepsis+Dia, Sepsis/Diacerhein.
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Discussion
In the present study, we demonstrated that administration of the antiinflammatory diacerhein improved survival during peritoneal-induced sepsis, with a significant effect on insulin sensitivity. In addition, this drug promoted downregulation of proinflammatory signaling cascades that culminate in the transcription of immunomodulatory factors such as interleukins and TNF-α. Our data show that diacerhein is able to attenuate increased levels of IL-1β, IL-6, and TNF-α, and reduce insulin resistance, as demonstrated by the insulin tolerance test. The improvement in insulin sensitivity was probably due to the increased IRS-1-associated PI3-kinase activity and Akt phosphorylation.
In recent years, studies have shown a direct link between metabolic and immune signaling systems in different conditions of insulin resistance [9, 33‐35]. We and others previously demonstrated that activation of inflammatory signaling through IKKβ and JNK is triggered in metabolic disorders and that this activation culminates in an increase in proinflammatory gene expression, which may play critical roles in insulin resistance [31, 35, 36].
Our data show that diacerhein decreases activation of the IKK/IκB/NF-κB pathway, a modulation that may play a role in the attenuated expression of inflammatory mediators in response to a septic insult. IKK pathway activation increases serine phosphorylation of IR and IRS-1, inducing insulin resistance [37, 38]. It has also been proposed that increased IKK activity can inhibit insulin-stimulated PI3-kinase activity [39]. In this respect, the capacity of insulin to stimulate PI3-kinase activity and Akt phosphorylation was highly improved in septic animals treated with diacerhein.
Enhanced NF-κB activation is associated with a poorer outcome in sepsis [40‐42]. NF-κB nuclear translocation induces transcription of IL-1β, IL-6, and TNF-α [32, 43]. The picture of hyperglycemia and insulin resistance observed in sepsis, often referred to as "stress diabetes," reflects the activation of signaling pathways and hyperexpression of inflammatory mediators that inhibit insulin action [44]. In this regard, the inhibition of NF-κB activation explains the reduced serum levels of TNF-α, IL-1β, and IL-6 in diacerhein-treated animals and, consequently, the improvement in the sepsis-induced insulin-resistance process.
Another mechanism involved in the host response to sepsis is activation of the proinflammatory JNK pathway. Several studies suggest that JNK contributes to insulin resistance. Our data show that diacerhein inhibits JNK phosphorylation in septic rats and indicate that the beneficial effects of this drug in improving survival and reducing insulin resistance are mediated by different pathways. Because many inflammatory pathways are triggered in sepsis, merely blocking a single component is likely to be insufficient to halt the process [45, 46]. Indeed, therapies modulating entire families of mediators seem to be more efficacious [45, 47].
Here we observed that sepsis led to serine phosphorylation of IRS-1, and diacerhein reduced this phenomenon in three insulin-target tissues. Thus, negative modulators of the intracellular cascade triggered by insulin, such as JNK and IKK, are partly responsible for the establishment of insulin resistance and represent potential therapeutic targets for sepsis-induced insulin resistance.
One mechanism that, based on newly emerging data, appears to have a central role in the activation of inflammatory pathways is endoplasmic reticulum (ER) stress [48]. If ER stress continues for a certain period, then programmed cell death is triggered. This response has a close relation to sepsis, because sepsis generates conditions that increase demands on the ER. In the present study, we showed that diacerhein strongly inhibited phosphorylation of PERK and its substrate eIF2α, as well as IRE1α expression, suggesting that this drug can attenuate ER stress induced by sepsis.
ER stress plays a central role in the activation of inflammatory signaling. In both in vitro and in vivo studies, ER stress leads to activation of JNK and thus contributes to insulin resistance [49‐51]. Interestingly, ER stress also activates IKK, and thus may represent a common mechanism for the activation of these two important signaling pathways [52]. Acute inflammation, oxidative stress, and ER stress seem to contribute to the association of sepsis with insulin resistance. The pharmacologic attenuation of all the aforementioned stresses leads to improved insulin sensitivity and consequently to favorable sepsis outcomes.
An initial investigation by Van den Berghe and colleagues [53] suggested that controlling blood glucose levels by intensive insulin therapy decreased mortality and morbidity after surgery on critically ill patients. Moreover, intensive insulin therapy halved the prevalence of bloodstream infections and prolonged inflammation, showing the antiinflammatory action of insulin. These findings were supported by further studies demonstrating that insulin has antiinflammatory effects via activation of the PI3K-Akt pathway [54, 55]. In addition, insulin has potent acute antiinflammatory effects, including reductions in intranuclear NF-κB [56] and several key mediators of oxidative stress [57].
It is important to mention that the reduced inflammatory response induced by diacerhein probably played a central role in improving insulin signaling, but the improvement in this pathway may also have a role in the improved survival. It is possible that reduced insulin signaling through the IRSs/PI3K/Akt pathways in sepsis may contribute to multiorgan failure by activation of apoptosis [58]. Additionally, studies have shown that prevention of apoptosis may be a potential treatment for sepsis in humans [59‐61]. Diacerhein, by improving insulin-induced PI3K and Akt, may play a critical role in protection from apoptosis in sepsis. In accordance with this, our data showed that caspase 3, which was increased in tissues of septic animals, decreased after diacerhein treatment.
Growing evidence suggests that the PI3K/Akt pathway plays an important role as a negative regulator of innate immune response by counteracting excessive production of proinflammatory mediators. The PI3K-Akt pathway has been shown to regulate negatively NF-κB and the expression of inflammatory genes [62‐64]. Inhibition of the PI3K-Akt pathway enhances LPS-induced TNF-α and TF gene expression [55], and activates the mitogen-activated protein kinase pathways (ERK1/2, p38, and JNK) as well as the downstream target AP-1 [54]. Also relevant in this regard is a report showing that PI3K-knockout mice fail to respond to LPS [65]. In this context, it is possible that restoration of this pathway, induced by diacerhein, may contribute to the antiinflammatory effect of this drug.
Conversely, the role of intensive insulin therapy in patients with severe sepsis is uncertain, because the beneficial effects of insulin may be overcome by the increased risk of serious adverse events related to hypoglycemia [66]. We propose that drugs capable of reversing sepsis-induced insulin resistance, in the context of maintenance of adequate glycemic control, may be a potential therapy for sepsis. In this regard, diacerhein may be a potential therapeutic strategy for sepsis, with a significant effect on insulin sensitivity and insulin signaling in peripheral tissues.
Our data show that administration of the antiinflammatory diacerhein in septic animals increased survival, with significant effects on insulin sensitivity and insulin signaling in peripheral tissues. The treatment also reduced NF-κB activation, in association with upstream JNK and IKK activation, decreased serum levels of cytokines, and improved ER stress. Our results indicate that diacerhein treatment attenuates insulin resistance in sepsis, and in parallel modulates inflammatory pathways.
Conclusions
This is the first report demonstrating that diacerhein improves survival and insulin signaling, which is blunted in sepsis, and in parallel, attenuates the inflammatory response. On the basis of its efficacy, safety profile, and rare side effects, this drug may be an alternative therapy for management of insulin resistance in sepsis.
Key messages
Hyperglycemia and insulin resistance have been associated with poorer outcomes in sepsis, and tight glycemic control through insulin therapy has been shown to reduce morbidity and mortality rates.
However, insulin-induced hypoglycemia may counteract the beneficial effects of aggressive insulin therapy in patients with severe sepsis.
These data suggest that the ideal drug to improve survival in sepsis should reduce overreaction by the inflammatory response and, in parallel, should improve the insulin signaling pathway, without inducing hypoglycemia.
Diacerhein improved survival during peritoneal-induced sepsis, with a significant effect on insulin sensitivity. In addition, this drug promoted downregulation of proinflammatory signaling cascades, which culminate in the transcription of immunomodulatory factors such as interleukins and TNF-α.
The effect of diacerhein on suppression of the inflammatory response may play a central role in the regulation of insulin signaling and survival in septic insult. Diacerhein may represent a potential new approach to sepsis treatment.
Acknowledgements
We acknowledge the excellent technical assistance of Luis Janieri, Jósimo Pinheiro, and Ramon Zorzeto. This study was supported by FAPESP (Fundação de Amparo a Pesquisa do Estado de São Paulo) and INCT-CNPq (Instituto Nacional de Ciência e Tecnologia-Conselho Nacional de Desenvolvimento Científico e Tecnológico).
Competing interests
The authors declare that they have no competing interests.
Authors' contributions
KLC carried out the studies, analyzed data, and drafted the manuscript; ACAC carried out the studies and drafted the manuscript; FCM performed the experiments; BMC performed the experiments and drafted the manuscript; and DG carried out ELISA measurements. JBCC participated in the design of the study, MJAS designed studies, analyzed data, and drafted the manuscript. All authors read and approved the final manuscript.
