Background
Some defining characteristics
Chronic physical activity and motor performance or learning
Acute exercise and motor performance or learning
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Is chronic physical activity positively associated with motor performance in upper extremity tasks and does the type of exercise matter?
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Is engagement in chronic physical activity associated with enhanced initial motor learning and/or retention?
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Does a bout of acute exercise facilitate motor performance immediately after exercise?
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Does a bout of acute exercise lead to enhanced initial motor learning and/or retention?
Methods
Database sources and search terms
Level | Category | Search terms |
---|---|---|
1 | Physical Activity | “physical activity” or “fitness” or “physical fitness” or “physical exercise” or “exercise” or “energy expenditure” or “sport” or “endurance” |
+ connected | AND | |
2 | Motor performance | “motor performance” or “motor task” or “motor skill” or “fine motor control” or “fine motor performance” or “dexterity” or “manual dexterity” or “force control” or “visuomotor* tracking” or “motor control” or “movement control” or “manual performance” or “grip force” or “finger movement” or “voluntary movement” |
+ connected | AND | |
3 | Older adults | “old* age” or “advanced age” or “old* adults” or “elderly” or “senior*” or “aging” or “ageing” |
Level | Category | Search terms |
---|---|---|
1 | Physical Activity | “physical activity” or “fitness” or “physical fitness” or “physical exercise” or “exercise” or “energy expenditure” or “sport” or “endurance” |
+ connected | AND | |
2 | Motor learning | “motor learning” or “motor adaptation” or “motor skill learning” or “skill learning” or “skill training” or “motor training” or “motor skill acquisition” or “skill acquisition” or “motor improvement” or “short-term learning” or “motor sequence learning” or “motor memory” or “motor consolidation” |
+ connected | AND | |
3 | Older adults | “old* age” or “advanced age” or “old* adults” or “elderly” or “senior*” or “aging” or “ageing” |
Level | Category | Search terms |
---|---|---|
1 | Acute exercise | “acute exercise” or “acute* exercise” or “fatigue” or “physical stress” or “intermittent* exercise” or “after exercise” or “acute stress” |
+ connected | AND | |
2 | Motor performance | “motor performance” or “motor task” or “motor skill” or “fine motor control” or “fine motor performance” or “dexterity” or “manual dexterity” or “force control” or “visuomotor*tracking” or “motor control” or “movement control” or “manual performance” or “grip force” or “finger movement” or “voluntary movement” |
+ connected | AND | |
3 | Older adults | “old* age” or “advanced age” or “old* adults” or “elderly” or “senior*” or “aging” or “ageing” |
Level | Category | Search terms |
---|---|---|
1 | Acute exercise | “acute exercise” or “acute* exercise” or “fatigue” or “physical stress” or “intermittent* exercise” or “after exercise” or “acute stress” |
+ connected | AND | |
2 | Motor learning | “motor learning” or “motor adaptation” or “motor skill learning” or “skill learning” or “skill training” or “motor training” or “motor skill acquisition” or “skill acquisition” or “motor improvement” or “short-term learning” or “motor sequence learning” or “motor memory” or “motor consolidation” |
+ connected | AND | |
3 | Older adults | “old* age” or “advanced age” or “old* adults” or “elderly” or “senior*” or “aging” or “ageing” |
Study selection and eligibility criteria
Results
Chronic physical activity and motor performance
Sample characteristics
Author, Year | Participants | Motor task | Other depended variables | Method to assess physical activity | Design and statistics | Results |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
[1*] | OA: n = 30, f = 14, n/a, 76.4 ± 5; YA: n = 12, f = 6, n/a, 22.1 ± 2 | Manual dexterity (Purdue pegboard), hand-arm movements (wrist-position matching), L + R | Grip strength | Sj: PAQ (IPAQ) | Cross-sectional, median split: energy expenditure, active OA (≥ 2900 kcal/wk) vs. inactive OA (< 2800 kcal/wk) vs. YA | Physical active OA > sedentary OA in hand-arm movements. No effect of PA-levelon manual dexterity. |
[3*] | All OA: IG: n = 5, f = 3, 72–91, 80.2 ± 7.8; CG: n = 5, f = 3, 83–89, 84.8 ± 2.5 | Force matching task (force tracking with index finger), D | / | Oj: CFT (submaximal graded exercise tolerance) | Interventional, IG (8 wk. low-intensity AE) vs. CG (n/a) | IG ↑ in force matching task, besides an aerobic training effect. |
[7*] | All OA: active: n = 20, f = 10, 67–85, n/a; inactive: n = 20, f = 12, 67–85, n/a | Manual dexterity (Minnesota Manual Dexterity Test), n/a | Nelson Hand Reaction Test | N/a | Cross-sectional, active OA vs. inactive OA | Active OA > inactive OA in manual dexterity. |
[12*] | OA tennis: n = 21, f = 10, 60–82, 67.3 ± 5.3; OA runners: n = 23, f = 10, 61–77, 68.0 ± 5.2; OA exerciser: n = 20, f = 10, 63–79, 68.2 ± 5.1; YA: n = 20, f = 10, 19–29, 21.8 ± 2.4 | Manual dexterity (thumb & finger sequence), tapping speed (tapping task with a stylus), hand-arm movements (matching a ball position with wrist), D | Balance, CRT, SRT | Sj: PAQ (modified Baecke), Oj: CFT (Rockport Fitness Walking Test, estimated VO2max) | Cross-sectional, type of activity in OA (tennis vs. runners vs. exerciser) vs. YA | No sig. difference between the different kinds of sports. No sig. correlations between estimated VO2max and motor performance (regardless of kind of sport). |
[19*] | OA: n = 41, f = 0, 60–80, n/a; YA: n = 43, f = 0, 20–30, n/a | Hand-arm movements (mirror tracing task), R | EEG (alpha activity) | Sj: PAQ (modified Baecke), Oj: CFT (submaximal bicycle test, estimated VO2max) | Cross-sectional, median split: estimated VO2max, YA median: 41.11 ml/kg/min, OA median: 26.01 ml/kg/min | No effect of cardiovascular fitness on hand-arm movements. |
[29*] | All OA: swimmer: n = 20, f = 12, n/a, 65.4 ± 5.5; active CG: n = 34, f = 21, n/a, 67.4 ± 5.7 | Hand-arm movements (sequential pointing task), D | Static postural stability test | Sj: Exercise screening questionnaire | Cross-sectional, swimming (≥ 500 per session, 3 session/wk., ≥ 3 years) vs. active CG (jogging or mountain climbing ≥3 times/wk) | Swimming group > active control group in hand-arm movements. |
[33*] | All OA: IG: n = 25,f = 17, 60–94, 68.60 ± 1.45; CG: n = 10, f = 7, 60–94, 72.30 ± 1.84 | Hand-arm fine motor battery: maintain arm-hand position (steadiness), aiming, motor dexterity(pin plugging), wrist-finger movements (tapping), L + R | Cognitive performance, posture, RT tasks, tactile performance | Sj: PAQ (ECQ), Oj: CFT (spiroergometry, VO2peak) | Interventional, IG (24 wks, 1 h/wk. dance program) vs. inactive CG | IG ↑ in steadiness (L), aiming (time, L+ R), pin plugging (L + R), tapping (R). No effect of dance intervention on steadiness (R), aiming (error R; tendency for error, L: p = .051), tapping (L). CG ↑ in tapping (L). Total motor performance score: IG ↑, tendency CG ↑ (p = .073). |
[34*] | All OA: expert dancer: n = 11, f = 5, 60–94, 71.18 ± 1.13; nondancer, inactive CG: n = 38, f = 30, 60–94, 71.66 ± 1.11 | Hand-arm fine motor battery (see [33]) | Balance & gait control, cognitive performance, posture, RT tasks, tactile performance | Sj: PAQ (ECQ) | Cross-sectional, expert dancer group vs. nondancer, inactive CG | Expert dancer > CG in aiming (error, R; tendency for time, R: p = .059), pin plugging (R). No effect of expert dancing on steadiness (L + R), aiming (error + time, L), pin plugging (L), tapping (R, tendency for L: p = .057). Total motor performance score: tendency expert dancer > CG (p = .080). |
[35*] | All OA: amateur dancer n = 24, f = 19, 65–84, 71.69 ± 1.15; inactive CG: n = 38, f = 30, 61–94, 71.66 ± 1.13 | Hand-arm fine motor battery (see [33]) | See [34*] | Sj: PAQ (ECQ) | Cross-sectional, amateur dancers (16.4 ± 12.7 years of experience, 1.33 ± 0.24 h/wk) vs. inactive CG (without dancing or sport activities) | Amateur dancer > CG in steadiness (L), aiming (error, R), tapping (L). No effect of amateur dancing on steadiness (R), aiming (error + time, L; time, R), pin plugging (L + R), tapping (R). Total motor performance score: amateur dancer > CG. |
[36*] | All OA: IG: n = 7, f = 0, 70–80, 75 ± 2; CG: n = 4, f = 0, 70–80, 76 ± 2 | Force matching task (finger pinch force control: constant + sinus; 20% & 40% of MVC), L + R | Upper limb strength | Not assessed | Interventional, IG (strength training: 6 wks, 2 d/wk., 4 sets of 3 exercises: biceps curls, wrist extension) vs. CG (no training) | IG > CG at high constant force and sinusoidal force production in the trained limb. No effect of strength training on low constant force. No effect for the untrained limb. |
[37*] | Sportive OA: n = 27, f = 0, n/a, 63.75 ± 5.02; nonsportive OA: n = 24, f = 0, n/a, 61.88 ± 4.67; sportive YA: n = 24, f = 0, n/a, 20.71 ± 3.18; nonsportive YA: n = 23, f = 0, n/a 22.13 ± 2.05; martial arts OA: n = 22, f = 0, n/a, 62 ± 5.89; martial arts YA: n = 23, f = 0, n/a 22.22 ± 2.88 | Force matching task (force tracking task, index finger; constant: 5/25% MVC + sinus: 5–25% MCV), tapping speed (tapping task, index finger), L + R | Cognitive performance, posture | Sj: Self-reported regular exercise per week | Cross-sectional, active (regular weekly activities; YA/OA) vs. inactive (YA/OA) vs. martial arts YA/OA) | Inactive > martial arts in all force tracking conditions, no difference in sinus task. No influence of activity group on tapping speed. |
[52*] | All OA: 1: n = 6, f = 3, n/a, 76 ± 6; 2: n = 6, f = 3, n/a, 76 ± 6 | Manual dexterity (Grooved Pegboard Test & Jebsen Taylor Hand Function Test), force matching task (four fingers, ramp from resting level to 25% of MVC), L + R | Maximum force production task | Not assessed | Interventional, strength training: maximal finger pressing force, 6 wks, 2 times/d, 2 × 10 repetitions of 2 s), different training groups: (1)“right-distal site + left-proximal site training vs. (2) “left-distal site + right- proximal site” | Both training groups ↑ in Grooved Pegboard test, but not in Jebsen Taylor Hand function test. Tendency for ↑ in force tracking task. |
[54*] | All OA: Tai chi: n = 22, f = 14; n/a, 67.8 ± 5.1; CG: n = 20, f = 15, n/a, 68.1 ± 5.2 | Hand-arm movements (sequential pointing task), n/a | / | Sj: Self-reported engagement in PA | Cross-sectional, tai chi group (1–2 h, 5–7 d, > 3 y) vs. active CG (≥ 3 exercise/wk) | Tai chi group > CG (in four out of five parameter) in hand-arm movements. |
[56*] | All OA 60–82, 67 ± n/a: gymnastics: n = 19, f = 15, n/a, n/a,; swimming: n = 11, f = 9; n/a, n/a; senior dance: n = 15, f = 12, n/a, n/a; CG: n = 14, f = 6 | Hand-arm movements (hand and arm coordination in the clothes-pin test), L + R | Balance, blood samples, dietary habits, flexibility, SRT | Oj: CFT (exercise test on treadmill, estimated VO2max) | Interventional, 5 months: IG 1: multi-component (45 min, 2 times/w: aerobic, strength, balance & flexibility, 65% mHR) vs. IG 2: swimmer (25 min, 2 times/w: water gymnastic + swimming. 65% mHR) vs. IG 3: senior dance (45 min, 2 times/w, 58% of mHR) vs. CG (no training), each separated in female & male | All exercise groups ↑ in hand-arm movements, no difference between female and male. Male CG ↑ with dominant hand. |
[66*] | All OA: IG: n = 61, f = n/a, 60–88, 73.7 ± 6.5; CG: n = 49, f = n/a, 62–91, 77.9 ± 7.8 | Manual dexterity (Pegs-over test), L + R | Balance & gait, grip strength, walking | Not assessed | Interventional, IG (low intensity multi-component exercise: stretching, flexibility, range of motion exercises, 30 min, 2 times/week, 1 year) | No ↑ of IG in manual dexterity. |
[67*] | Fit OA: n = 19, f = n/a, 60–73, 63.7 ± 3.8; non fit OA: n = 19, f = n/a, 60–73, 66.4 ± 4.2; fit MA: n = 17, f = n/a, 35–45, 40.2 ± 3.7; non fit MA: n = 18, f = n/a, 35–45, 40.0 ± 3.0; fit YA: n = 15, f = n/a, 18–25, 21.8 ± 3.3; non fit YA: n = 17, f = n/a, 18–25, 23.5 ± 3.3 | Tapping speed (finger tapping task), R | Battery of cognitive tasks | Oj: CFT (submaximal bicycle ergometer test, predicted VO2max) | Cross-sectional, median split: VO2max. YA: 44.9 ml/kg/min, MA: 33.1 ml/kg/min, OA: 25.4 ml/kg/min | No effect of fitness on tapping speed. |
[73*] | Active OA1: n = 10, f = 10, 70–79, n/a; inactive OA1: n = 9, f = 9, 70–79, n/a; active OA2: n = 16, f = 16, 60–69, n/a; inactive OA2: n = 14, f = 14, 60–69, n/a; active MA: n = 18, f = 18, 50–59, n/a; inactive MA: n = 14, f = 14, 50–59, n/a; active YA: n = 10, f = 10, 20–29, n/a; inactive YA: n = 20, f = 20, 20–29, n/a | Tapping speed (stationary tapping; between target tapping), D | Digit Symbol Substitution, DRT, SRT, Trailmaking test | Sj: Self-reported amount of activity | Cross-sectional, active (walked/jogged/ran ≥3 miles/d, 3 d/wk., ≥ 5 years) vs. inactive (n/a) and age groups (OA1: 70–79, OA2: 60–69, MA: 50–59, YA: 20–29) | No effect of cardiovascular exercise on tapping speed. |
[80*] | Active OA: n = 12, f = 7, n/a, 65.1 ± 0.9; inactive OA: n = 12, f = 8, n/a, 65.3 ± 1.1; active YA: n = 11, f = 5, n/a, 22.9 ± 0.5; inactive YA: n = 11, f = 5, n/a, 22.0 ± 0.6 | Hand-arm movements (flexion and extension aiming wrist movements), R | / | Sj: PAQ (Baecke) | Cross-sectional, median split: Baecke score, active OA = 9.3 ± 0.2, inactive OA = 6.9 ± 0.3; active YA = 9.7 ± 0.3, inactive YA = 6.7 ± 0.3 | No difference betweenphysically active OA and inactive OA in hand-arm movements. |
[81*] | Fit OA: n = 13, f = 8, 61.5–65.5, 64.9 ± n/a; non fit OA: n = 13, f = 6, 61.4–68.2, 65.7 ± n/a; YA: n = 15, f = 9, 23.3–23.6, 23.5 ± n/a | See [80*] | / | Sj: PAQ (Baecke) | Cross-sectional, median split: Baecke score, active OA = 7.8 (7.6–8.8), inactive OA = 6.1 (5.3–6.9), YA = 7.9 (7.1–8.5) | Physically active OA > inactive OA in hand-arm movements. |
[82*] | OA tai chi practitioners: n = 12, f = n/a, n/a, 67.75 ± 7.57; OA non-practitioners: n = 11, f = n/a, n/a, 65.85 ± 6.34; YA: n = 12, f = n/a, n/a, 23.58 ± 4.19 | Hand-arm movements (cued, flexion- and abduction-reaching task), n/a | Stand-reaching task | Sj: PAQ (PASE) | Cross-sectional, long-term practice of Tai Chi (≥ 100 h practice in the last y) vs. non-practitioners | Tai chi group > non- practitioners in hand-arm movements. |
[86*] | All OA: high active: n = 19, f = 19, 60–80, 70.8 ± 4.4; moderately active: n = 15, f = 15, 60–80, 71.9 ± 3.9; inactive: n = 16, f = 16 72.1 ± 4.3 | Manual dexterity (Minnesota test), L + R | Balance, blood pressure, flexibility (hip, spine, shoulder), grip strength, peak expiratory flow, RT, walking | Sj: PAQ (modified Baecke) | Cross-sectional, high active vs. moderately active vs. inactive (separated in 3 tertials) | No influence of high PA level on manual dexterity. |
[92*] | All OA: tai chi: n = 20, f = 8, n/a, 65.4 ± 5.5; swimmer: n = 32, f = 20, n/a, 67.0 ± 6.6; active CG: n = 34, f = 21, n/a, 67.4 ± 5.7 | Hand-arm movements (sequential pointing task), D | Balance, postural stability | Sj: Self-reported engagement in PA | Cross-sectional, tai chi group (approximately 54 min/training, ≥ 3 times/wk) vs. swimming group (≥ 500 per session, 3 session/wk., ≥ 3 years) vs. active CG (non-swimmers, no tai chi) | Tai chi & swimming group > CG in hand-arm movements, tai chi & swimming group: no difference. |
[93*] | All OA n = 38, f = 29: tai chi: n = 28, n/a, 76–89, 78.8 ± 2.1; locomotor activity: n = 10, n/a, 76–89, 79.2 ± 1.9 | Hand-arm movements (aiming task), R | Balance | Not assessed | Interventional, exercise program (8 wks, 3 times/wk., ≥ 45 min): tai chi vs. locomotor activity (walking or jogging) | Tai chi: bigger ↑ in arm movement smoothness. Both groups: no ↑ in arm movement speed. |
[94*] | All OA: tai chi: n = 12, f = 9, 76–88, 79.3 ± 2.4; locomotor activity: n = 8, f = 6, 76–88, 79.5 ± 1.9 | See [93*] | / | Sj: Self-reported engagement in PA | Interventional, see [93] | Tai chi group more ↑ than CG in hand-arm movements. |
[95*] | All OA: IG: n = 15, f = 10, 60–83, 69.43 ± 6.17; CG: n = 15, f = n/a, n/a, n/a: matched to IG | Manual dexterity (Motor Performance Series of the Vienna System Series), D | Balance, flexibility, grip strength, whole-body reaction time | Not assessed | Interventional, IG (low-moderate aerobic exercise, 60 min, 3 times/ week, 9 months) vs. CG (n/a) | IG ↑ in manual dexterity, CG no difference (tendency for performance decline). |
Study design
Type of exercise
Targeted exercise as independent variable
Type of motor task
Chronic physical activity and motor learning
Sample characteristics
Author/ Year | Participants | Motor task | Other depended variables | Method to assess physical activity | Design and statistics | Results |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
[19*] | OA: n = 41, f = 0, 60–80, n/a.; YA: n = 43, f = 0, 20–30, n/a | Visuospatial accuracy (Mirror tracing task, R) | EEG (alpha activity) | Sj: PAQ (modified Baecke), Oj: CFT (sub-maximal bicycle test, estimated VO2max) | Acquisition (175 trials), retention (2 d later, 20 trials). Fitness: median split: estimated VO2max, YA median: 41.11 ml/kg/min, OA median: 26.01 ml/kg/min | Positive association of cardiovascular fitness and acquisition of mirror tracing. No association of cardiovascular fitness and retention. |
[21*] | OA: n = 18, f = 8, 60–80, 68.0 ± 5.9; YA: n = 20, f = 10, 20–40, 24.2 ± 5.2 | Visuospatial accuracy (Mirror tracing task, R) | EEG (alpha activity) | Oj: CFT (submaximal bicycle test, estimated VO2max) | Acquisition (approximately 87 trials), retention (24–72 h later, 40 trials. Fitness: regression analyses of VO2max and motor learning | Positive association of cardiovascular fitness and acquisition and retention of a mirror tracing. |
[89*] | All OA: fit: n = 14, 64–76, n/a; non fit: n = 14, 64–76, n/a. | Rapid arm reaching movements (motor adaptation/ visuomotor rotation) | / | Sj: PAQ (Stanford Brief Activity Survey), Oj: accelerometer | Baseline (80 trials), training (192 trials), transfer (192 trials). Physical activity: active (≥ 30 min, ≥ 3 d/wk. of AE) vs. inactive (≤ 2 d/wk. low-intensity exercise) | Active OA showed similar motor adaptation pattern to YA (asymmetrical transfer), inactive OA revealed a different pattern (symmetrical transfer). |