Background
The current study
Methods
Participants and recruitment
Materials
Stereoacuity
Motor skills
Social or autism-related traits
Missing data
Data analysis
Results
Descriptive statistics
M (SD) | Range | Cut-off scores indicating clinically significant impairment | % of participants meeting cut-off | Skewness | Kurtosis | Cronbach’s α | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
ADC | 41.7 (21.97) | 0–116 | “DCD at risk” = 56–64 | 2.31% | 0.75 | 3.09 | 0.94 |
“Probable DCD” = ≥ 65 | 13.08% | ||||||
AQ | 121.52 (22.5) | 78–179 | ≥ 32 | 24.92%; note, 6 participants disclosed ASD diagnosis | 0.29 | 2.16 | 0.91 |
ASA | 3.6 (2.53) | 1–8 | Data not available | N/A | 0.61 | 1.82 | 0.72 |
SSI | 24.14 (9.28) | 9–45 | Moderate deficit = 17–29 | 34.62% | − 0.07 | 1.78 | 0.87 |
Major deficit = ≥ 30 | 35.08% |
Correlation of measure totals
Exploratory factor analysis
Measure | Item | Social | Stereo | Detail | Fine motor | Org | Magic Eye | Isolation | Coord | Imagine | Multi |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
AQ | Enjoy social chitchat |
0.70
| 0.01 | −0.06 | −0.09 | −0.06 | −0.03 | −0.04 | 0.07 | 0.01 | 0.08 |
AQ | Good at social chitchat |
0.70
| 0.04 | 0.02 | −0.05 | 0.03 | 0.12 | 0.03 | 0.01 | −0.05 | −0.03 |
AQ | Find social situations easy |
0.67
| −0.05 | 0.07 | −0.01 | 0.01 | 0.03 | 0.01 | 0.00 | 0.02 | −0.08 |
AQ | Prefer people over things |
0.59
| −0.01 | −0.12 | −0.04 | 0.02 | 0.04 | −0.01 | −0.04 | 0.04 | 0.09 |
AQ | Enjoy social occasions |
0.56
| −0.07 | −0.10 | −0.14 | 0.02 | −0.02 | −0.10 | −0.09 | 0.08 | 0.01 |
AQ | Enjoy meeting new people |
0.53
| −0.07 | −0.12 | 0.02 | 0.00 | 0.02 | −0.04 | −0.20 | 0.05 | 0.04 |
ADC | Choose to spend leisure time on own |
−0.48
| 0.05 | 0.09 | 0.20 | −0.02 | 0.02 | 0.25 | −0.01 | 0.01 | 0.06 |
AQ | Easily keep track of several conversations |
0.44
| −0.03 | 0.15 | 0.00 | −0.08 | −0.01 | 0.01 | 0.07 | 0.19 | −0.19 |
AQ | Can work out what someone is feeling from their face |
0.43
| −0.02 | 0.00 | −0.06 | −0.08 | −0.01 | −0.02 | 0.06 |
0.34
| −0.10 |
AQ | Prefer to do things with others |
0.43
| 0.05 | 0.02 | 0.13 | −0.11 | −0.02 | −0.11 | 0.02 | −0.22 | −0.05 |
AQ | Find it hard to make new friends |
−0.41
| −0.06 | 0.30 | −0.05 | −0.04 | −0.06 | 0.20 | 0.15 | −0.16 | −0.06 |
AQ | New situations bring on anxiety |
−0.35
| 0.08 | 0.11 | −0.11 | 0.01 | 0.06 | 0.17 | 0.09 | −0.08 | 0.24 |
AQ | Don’t know how to keep conversation going |
−0.33
| −0.04 | 0.22 | 0.04 | 0.02 | −0.09 | 0.11 | −0.00 | −0.25 | 0.11 |
AQ | Can easily ‘read between the lines’ |
0.32
| −0.03 | 0.02 | −0.10 | −0.03 | 0.10 | 0.06 | 0.03 | 0.31 | −0.14 |
SSI | Do you think you need glasses | 0.03 |
0.94
| 0.02 | 0.05 | 0.01 | −0.01 | −0.03 | −0.03 | 0.03 | 0.01 |
SSI | Glasses/contact lens wearer | −0.05 |
0.90
| −0.00 | −0.00 | 0.01 | 0.02 | −0.02 | −0.02 | 0.02 | −0.00 |
SSI | W/out correction, clearness of vision in LEFT eye | 0.08 |
0.89
| 0.02 | 0.03 | −0.04 | −0.01 | 0.07 | −0.05 | −0.04 | 0.05 |
SSI | W/out correction, clearness of vision in RIGHT eye | −0.08 |
0.88
| −0.06 | −0.03 | 0.00 | 0.02 | −0.02 | 0.03 | 0.06 | −0.03 |
SSI | Vision as good as other people’s | 0.06 |
0.87
| 0.02 | −0.03 | 0.03 | −0.04 | −0.00 | −0.00 | −0.06 | −0.01 |
SSI | Correction needed for reading | −0.02 |
0.53
| 0.01 | −0.04 | −0.02 | 0.05 | −0.09 | 0.21 | −0.05 | −0.08 |
AQ | Notice patterns in things all the time | −0.13 | 0.05 |
0.67
| −0.08 | 0.10 | 0.02 | −0.03 | −0.08 | 0.05 | −0.05 |
AQ | Notice car number plates or similar | −0.01 | 0.02 |
0.56
| −0.03 | 0.04 | 0.06 | 0.03 | −0.01 | −0.02 | −0.07 |
AQ | Tend to notice details that others do not | −0.14 | −0.02 |
0.55
| 0.12 | 0.06 | −0.00 | −0.10 | 0.01 | 0.30 | −0.09 |
AQ | Strong interests, get upset if can’t pursue | 0.01 | 0.04 |
0.55
| 0.14 | −0.02 | −0.04 | 0.05 | −0.03 | 0.03 | 0.16 |
AQ | Notice small sounds | −0.13 | 0.07 |
0.47
| 0.07 | 0.07 | 0.06 | 0.01 | 0.05 | 0.18 | 0.07 |
AQ | Get strongly absorbed in one thing | −0.24 | 0.12 |
0.46
| −0.06 | 0.18 | −0.02 | −0.02 | −0.01 | −0.03 | −0.02 |
AQ | Enjoy collecting information about categories | −0.01 | −0.07 |
0.45
| 0.13 | −0.08 | 0.02 | 0.04 | 0.09 | −0.07 | 0.05 |
AQ | Repetitive topic of conversation | 0.06 | 0.03 |
0.45
| 0.11 | 0.03 | −0.01 | 0.13 | −0.01 | −0.18 | 0.01 |
AQ | Tend to dominate conversation | 0.18 | 0.03 |
0.43
| 0.05 | −0.06 | 0.06 | 0.09 | −0.02 | −0.04 | 0.12 |
AQ | Fascinated by numbers | −0.07 | −0.05 |
0.41
| 0.07 | 0.03 | 0.03 | −0.07 | 0.04 | −0.08 | −0.06 |
AQ | Difficult to work out people’s intentions | −0.06 | 0.06 |
0.39
| −0.00 | 0.04 | −0.03 | 0.06 | −0.00 | −0.29 | 0.16 |
AQ | Difficulty imagining being someone else | 0.08 | −0.09 |
0.37
| 0.14 | −0.01 | −0.12 | 0.09 | −0.06 | −0.16 | 0.19 |
AQ | Say impolite things without realising | 0.09 | −0.02 |
0.36
| 0.14 | −0.12 | −0.03 | 0.12 | 0.02 | −0.04 | 0.25 |
AQ | Difficulty speaking in turns on phone | −0.01 | 0.03 |
0.35
| 0.13 | 0.07 | −0.05 | 0.10 | 0.09 | −0.05 | 0.10 |
AQ | Difficultly working out characters’ intentions in story | 0.12 | 0.01 |
0.34
| 0.06 | −0.04 | 0.14 | 0.13 | 0.13 | −0.24 | 0.02 |
ADC | Others find it difficult to read your writing | 0.01 | 0.04 | 0.00 |
0.79
| −0.07 | 0.01 | 0.05 | −0.07 | 0.01 | −0.06 |
ADC | Difficulty with writing neatly AND quickly | −0.06 | 0.02 | −0.03 |
0.73
| 0.03 | −0.04 | 0.02 | −0.02 | 0.03 | 0.09 |
ADC | Difficulty with neat writing when child | −0.07 | −0.01 | 0.07 |
0.70
| 0.13 | −0.04 | 0.07 | −0.11 | 0.00 | 0.00 |
ADC | Difficulties reading own writing | −0.04 | 0.07 | −0.05 |
0.66
| −0.04 | 0.03 | −0.08 | 0.18 | −0.01 | −0.15 |
ADC | Difficulties with writing as fast as peers | 0.00 | −0.04 | 0.07 |
0.65
| 0.06 | 0.03 | −0.04 | 0.09 | −0.12 | 0.05 |
ADC | Difficulty with fast writing as child | 0.04 | −0.06 | 0.06 |
0.62
| 0.15 | 0.03 | 0.01 | 0.06 | −0.07 | 0.06 |
ADC | Difficulty copying without mistakes | −0.09 | −0.06 | −0.09 |
0.43
| 0.10 | −0.02 | −0.15 | 0.27 | 0.04 | 0.08 |
ADC | Difficulty with organisation | −0.04 | 0.07 | −0.06 | 0.14 |
0.71
| 0.07 | −0.09 | 0.02 | −0.00 | −0.03 |
ADC | Difficulties with organisation as child | −0.01 | 0.09 | −0.05 | 0.06 |
0.68
| −0.02 | 0.10 | −0.06 | −0.01 | −0.09 |
ADC | Others call you disorganised | 0.06 | 0.00 | 0.11 | 0.08 |
0.66
| 0.09 | 0.01 | 0.02 | −0.04 | 0.00 |
ADC | Tend to lose possessions | 0.01 | −0.09 | −0.03 | 0.04 |
0.58
| −0.04 | 0.15 | 0.03 | 0.05 | 0.03 |
ADC | Difficulty sitting still | −0.08 | −0.07 | 0.23 | 0.05 |
0.52
| −0.04 | −0.02 | −0.05 | 0.07 | 0.18 |
ADC | Difficulty planning ahead | −0.08 | 0.03 | 0.09 | −0.02 |
0.48
| 0.04 | −0.14 | 0.02 | −0.18 | 0.29 |
ADC | Bump into, spill, or break things | −0.00 | −0.07 | −0.02 | −0.04 |
0.43
| −0.10 |
0.41
| 0.19 | 0.04 | 0.02 |
ADC | Difficulty managing money | −0.02 | −0.04 | 0.05 | 0.01 |
0.43
| 0.04 | −0.17 | 0.23 | −0.03 | 0.15 |
ADC | Can lose attention in certain situations | −0.02 | 0.05 | 0.12 | 0.02 |
0.42
| −0.02 | −0.05 | 0.04 | −0.07 | 0.31 |
ADC | Bumped into objects more than other children | 0.03 | −0.07 | 0.09 | 0.05 |
0.38
| −0.13 |
0.36
| 0.20 | −0.02 | −0.03 |
MEA | Identify shape in autostereogram [shark] | −0.05 | 0.00 | −0.03 | 0.01 | −0.00 |
0.91
| 0.04 | 0.01 | 0.01 | 0.02 |
MEA | Identify shape in autostereogram [teapot] | 0.05 | −0.00 | 0.01 | −0.03 | 0.04 |
0.91
| 0.00 | 0.06 | −0.06 | −0.03 |
MEA | Ease of perceiving shapes in autostereograms above | 0.03 | −0.02 | 0.03 | 0.04 | 0.01 |
0.85
| 0.01 | −0.03 | 0.06 | 0.04 |
MEA | Previous successful completion of autostereogram | −0.09 | 0.10 | 0.09 | −0.01 | −0.01 |
0.35
| 0.22 | −0.15 | 0.04 | −0.04 |
ADC | If do sport, likely to be on your own | −0.16 | −0.01 | 0.04 | 0.05 | −0.04 | 0.06 |
0.63
| −0.08 | −0.04 | −0.03 |
ADC | Avoid team games/sports | −0.18 | 0.11 | 0.05 | 0.02 | 0.00 | 0.09 |
0.60
| 0.03 | 0.02 | 0.08 |
ADC | Difficulties playing team games as child | −0.04 | 0.13 | −0.01 | 0.14 | 0.02 | 0.01 |
0.47
| 0.17 | −0.05 | 0.12 |
ADC | Others commented on clumsiness as child | 0.13 | 0.02 | 0.06 | 0.01 |
0.35
| −0.16 |
0.44
| 0.23 | −0.04 | −0.06 |
ADC | Difficulties with hobbies requiring good coordination | −0.03 | 0.10 | −0.10 | 0.02 | 0.09 | −0.03 | 0.25 |
0.57
| 0.03 | 0.05 |
ADC | Difficulties eating with utensils | −0.03 | −0.08 | 0.06 | 0.08 | 0.01 | 0.05 | −0.09 |
0.57
| −0.09 | 0.06 |
ADC | Self-care difficulties | −0.08 | 0.02 | 0.05 | 0.19 | 0.07 | −0.08 | −0.01 |
0.48
| −0.08 | 0.08 |
ADC | Avoid hobbies that require good coordination | −0.02 | 0.13 | −0.08 | 0.02 | −0.02 | −0.02 |
0.36
|
0.45
| −0.03 | 0.15 |
AQ | Can easily imagine what characters in story look like | 0.00 | −0.01 | 0.08 | −0.16 | −0.08 | 0.08 | −0.00 | 0.05 |
0.52
| −0.00 |
AQ | Easily play games with children involving pretending | 0.28 | −0.07 | −0.05 | −0.10 | 0.05 | 0.05 | 0.08 | −0.15 |
0.43
| 0.14 |
AQ | Easy to create a picture using imagination | 0.01 | −0.01 | 0.25 | −0.03 | −0.08 | 0.08 | −0.09 | −0.01 |
0.42
| 0.02 |
AQ | Is a good diplomat | 0.28 | 0.02 | −0.00 | 0.05 | −0.08 | −0.00 | −0.11 | −0.01 |
0.37
| −0.05 |
AQ | Making up stories is easy | 0.06 | 0.00 | 0.23 | −0.08 | 0.08 | 0.05 | 0.12 | −0.08 |
0.37
| −0.02 |
ADC | Difficulty performing concurrent tasks | −0.11 | 0.04 | 0.02 | 0.20 | 0.10 | −0.02 | −0.05 | 0.24 | 0.08 |
0.41
|
ADC | Difficulty with distance estimation | 0.06 | 0.12 | 0.02 | −0.06 | 0.14 | −0.07 | 0.23 | 0.13 | −0.04 |
0.39
|
AQ | Easy to do more than one thing at once | 0.28 | 0.04 | 0.04 | −0.05 | −0.02 | 0.02 | 0.03 | −0.09 | 0.13 |
−0.34
|
ADC | Difficulty with navigation | 0.00 | 0.09 | −0.09 | 0.09 | 0.03 | −0.07 | 0.18 | 0.16 | −0.06 | 0.32 |
ADC | Difficulty packing suitcase to go away | 0.03 | −0.05 | 0.13 | 0.09 | 0.21 | 0.00 | −0.05 | 0.26 | −0.02 | 0.29 |
ADC | Difficulty learning to ride bike as child | 0.06 | 0.05 | 0.04 | 0.12 | 0.04 | −0.03 | 0.25 | 0.13 | 0.02 | 0.28 |
ADC | Difficulty preparing meal from scratch | −0.03 | −0.02 | 0.14 | −0.01 | 0.04 | −0.05 | −0.09 | 0.27 | −0.16 | 0.25 |
AQ | Prefer to do things the same way over and over | −0.05 | 0.00 | 0.30 | 0.16 | −0.10 | −0.06 | 0.11 | 0.02 | 0.04 | 0.25 |
AQ | Know if someone listening to me is getting bored | 0.27 | −0.05 | −0.10 | 0.03 | −0.05 | −0.04 | −0.07 | −0.07 | 0.29 | −0.23 |
ADC | Difficulties with self-care when child | 0.10 | −0.03 | 0.01 | 0.18 | 0.15 | −0.12 | 0.18 | 0.26 | 0.07 | 0.22 |
ADC | Difficulty folding and putting away clothes | 0.11 | 0.07 | 0.13 | 0.28 | 0.24 | 0.00 | −0.01 | 0.20 | −0.03 | 0.22 |
AQ | Not upset if daily routine is disturbed | 0.27 | −0.12 | −0.06 | 0.05 | 0.06 | 0.04 | −0.05 | −0.04 | 0.04 | −0.21 |
AQ | Enjoy doing things spontaneously | 0.29 | −0.16 | −0.09 | 0.08 | 0.15 | 0.10 | −0.13 | −0.18 | 0.06 | −0.21 |
AQ | Quickly go back to previous activity after interruption | 0.19 | −0.04 | −0.01 | 0.04 | −0.10 | 0.09 | 0.08 | −0.01 | 0.23 | −0.21 |
ADC | Slower at getting ready | −0.00 | 0.07 | 0.08 | 0.17 | 0.28 | 0.07 | −0.03 | 0.12 | −0.13 | 0.20 |
AQ | When younger, enjoyed pretend games with others | 0.10 | 0.04 | −0.25 | −0.08 | 0.08 | 0.10 | 0.03 | −0.20 | 0.29 | 0.19 |
AQ | Carefully plan any activities participated in | −0.13 | 0.06 | 0.31 | 0.07 | −0.27 | −0.07 | 0.09 | 0.14 | 0.16 | 0.19 |
SSI | Book too close to eyes when reading | −0.09 | 0.29 | 0.03 | −0.09 | 0.09 | −0.05 | 0.18 | 0.09 | −0.09 | −0.18 |
AQ | Not very good at remembering phone numbers | −0.01 | 0.04 | −0.24 | 0.19 | −0.08 | −0.03 | 0.14 | 0.01 | 0.11 | 0.18 |
SSI | Experience temporary loss of vision | −0.05 | 0.16 | 0.03 | 0.04 | 0.13 | −0.15 | 0.00 | 0.30 | 0.10 | −0.17 |
AQ | Not good at remembering people’s date of birth | −0.09 | −0.02 | −0.15 | 0.20 | 0.11 | 0.04 | 0.12 | −0.17 | 0.09 | 0.17 |
AQ | Don’t enjoy reading fiction | 0.10 | −0.02 | 0.07 | 0.03 | 0.02 | 0.04 | 0.06 | −0.01 | −0.06 | 0.15 |
AQ | Rather go to library than a party | −0.24 | 0.12 | 0.22 | 0.08 | −0.05 | 0.04 | 0.25 | 0.09 | 0.08 | −0.13 |
AQ | Concentrate on whole rather than parts | 0.13 | −0.04 | −0.23 | −0.05 | 0.09 | 0.02 | 0.00 | 0.07 | 0.11 | −0.11 |
ADC | Do you avoid going to clubs/dancing | −0.30 | 0.09 | 0.15 | 0.08 | 0.06 | 0.01 | 0.25 | −0.06 | −0.04 | −0.06 |
AQ | Last to understand the point of a joke | 0.14 | 0.00 | 0.32 | 0.01 | 0.05 | −0.14 | 0.09 | 0.16 | −0.12 | 0.05 |
AQ | Fascinated by dates | 0.07 | 0.03 | 0.26 | −0.02 | −0.06 | 0.10 | −0.03 | 0.14 | −0.03 | −0.05 |
AQ | Don’t notice small changes | 0.01 | 0.12 | 0.02 | 0.20 | −0.02 | −0.00 | 0.11 | −0.13 | −0.20 | 0.03 |
AQ | Rather go to the theater than to a museum | 0.29 | 0.01 | −0.09 | −0.10 | −0.05 | −0.05 | −0.18 | 0.18 | 0.04 | 0.03 |
ADC | Difficulties playing music instrument when child | 0.04 | −0.03 | −0.03 | 0.21 | 0.18 | −0.17 | 0.18 | 0.15 | −0.01 | 0.01 |
SSI | Difference between items 8 and 9 | 0.01 | 0.05 | 0.08 | −0.01 | −0.04 | −0.10 | 0.04 | 0.03 | 0.02 | −0.01 |
SSI | Eyes feel ‘tired’ | 0.09 | 0.30 | −0.02 | 0.10 | 0.06 | −0.07 | −0.03 | 0.25 | 0.04 | −0.00 |
Confirmatory factor analysis
Mediation
Stereo | Magic Eye | Social | Isolation | Coord | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Magic Eye | 0.14* | – | |||
Social | − 0.34*** | 0.05 | – | ||
Isolation | 0.21** | − 0.12 | − 0.53*** | – | |
Coord | 0.20** | − 0.18** | − 0.55*** | 0.86*** | – |
Fine motor | 0.19** | − 0.08 | − 0.54*** | 0.64*** | 0.67*** |