Background
Methods
Procedures and participants
Measures
Strengths and Difficulties Questionnaire (SDQ)- parent form
Sociodemographic characteristics
Participants | Non-participants |
p
| |||
---|---|---|---|---|---|
2–3 years | N = 194 | N = 125 | |||
CHILD | |||||
Age | |||||
M (SD) | 3.0 (.6) | 3.0 (.6) | .499 | ||
range | 2.0–3.9 | 2.0–3.9 | |||
Gender (male) - % (N) | 51.5 | (100) | 50.4 | (63) | .842 |
PARENT | |||||
Age | |||||
M (SD) | 36.2 (5.3) | 35.8 (4.6) | .484 | ||
range | 26.1–57.6 | 25.6–52.6 | |||
Gender (male) - % (N) | 40.7 | (79) | 45.6 | (57) | .390 |
Country of birth (Netherlands) - % (N) | 96.4 | (186) a | 98.4 | (123) | .491 |
Educational level1 - % (N) | .682 | ||||
Low | 14.4 | (28) | 13.6 | (17) | |
Intermediate | 44.3 | (86) | 39.2 | (49) | |
High | 39.7 | (77) | 46.4 | (58) | |
Missing | 1.5 | (3) | .8 | (1) | |
Paid employment (yes) - % (N) | 83.0 | (161) | 90.4 | (113) | .071 |
4–5 years | N = 182 | N = 135 | |||
CHILD | |||||
Age | |||||
M (SD) | 5.0 (0.6) | 4.9 (0.6) | .331 | ||
range | 4.0–5.9 | 4.0–5.9 | |||
Gender (male) - % (N) |
61.5
| (112) |
48.1
| (65) | .022 |
PARENT | |||||
Age | |||||
M (SD) | 38.1 (5.0) | 37.0 (5.5) | .092 | ||
range | 27.7–59.1 | 25.5–57.7 | |||
Gender (male) - % (N) | 32.4 | (59) | 42.2 | (57) | .078 |
Country of birth (Netherlands) - % (N) |
93.4
| (170) |
97.0
| (131) | .196 |
Educational level1 - % (N) | .004 | ||||
Low | 7.7 | (14) | 17.8 | (24) | |
Intermediate | 40.7 | (74) | 47.4 | (64) | |
High | 50.5 | (92) | 34.1 | (46) | |
Missing | 1.1 | (2) | .7 | (1) | |
Paid employment (yes) - % (N) | 86.3 | (157) | 81.3 | (109) a | .276 |
6–11 years | N = 403 | N = 288 | |||
CHILD | |||||
Age | |||||
M (SD) | 8.6 (1.7) | 8.3 (1.8) | .038 | ||
range | 6.0–11.9 | 6.0–11.9 | |||
Gender (male) - % (N) | 50.1 | 202 | 54.2 | 156 | .316 |
PARENT | |||||
Age | |||||
M (SD) | 41.0 (5.3) | 40.3 (5.2) | .076 | ||
range | 28.5–61.3 | 26.5–59.3 | |||
Gender (male) - % (N) | 39.7 | 160 | 45.6 | 131 | .137 |
Country of birth (Netherlands) - % (N) | 96.5 | 389 | 95.5 b | 273 | .551 |
Educational level1- % (N) | .604 | ||||
Low | 16.4 | 66 | 19.8 | 57 | |
Intermediate | 46.9 | 189 | 46.9 | 135 | |
High | 36.0 | 145 | 33.0 | 95 | |
Missing | .7 | 3 | .3 | 1 | |
Paid employment (yes) - % (N) | 83.8 b | 336 | 80.1 a | 230 | .226 |
12–18 years | N = 395 | N = 225 | |||
CHILD | |||||
Age | |||||
M (SD) | 15.5 (2.0) | 15.2 (2.0) | .073 | ||
range | 12.0–18.9 | 12.0–18.9 | |||
Gender (male) - % (N) | 54.4 | 215 | 52.0 | 117 | .615 |
PARENT | |||||
Age | |||||
M (SD) | 47.3 (5.5) | 46.6 (5.7) | .150 | ||
range | 32.0–75.3 | 30.6–66.2 | |||
Gender (male) - % (N) | 39.7 | 157 | 41.3 | 93 | .734 |
Country of birth (Netherlands) - % (N) | 97.5 | 385 | 96.0 b | 214 | .336 |
Educational level1- % (N) | .857 | ||||
Low | 26.8 | 106 | 28.0 | 63 | |
Intermediate | 46.8 | 185 | 44.4 | 100 | |
High | 25.8 | 102 | 26.7 | 60 | |
Missing | .5 | 2 | .9 | 2 | |
Paid employment (yes) - % (N) | 81.7 a | 322 | 79.6 c | 176 | .593 |
Statistical analysis
Results
Participants
Internal consistency
Cronbach’s α coefficient | Possible range | Min score % | Max score % | Clinical cut-offd | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
2–3 years, N = 194 | |||||
Emotional symptoms | .45 | 0–10 | – | – | – |
5 items | |||||
Conduct problems | .46 | 0–10 | – | – | – |
5 items | |||||
Hyperactivity-Inattention | .72 | 0–10 | 5.2 | .5 | > 6 |
5 item | |||||
Peer problems | .32 | 0–10 | – | – | – |
5 items | |||||
Prosocial behaviour | .60 | 0–10 | .0 | 14.9 | < 6 |
5 items | |||||
Total difficultiesa | .71 | 0–40 | 2.1 | .0 | > 12 |
20 items | |||||
Internalizingb | .47 | 0–20 | – | – | – |
10 items | |||||
Externalizingc | .71 | 0–20 | 3.6 | .0 | > 9 |
10 items | |||||
4–5 years, N = 182 | |||||
Emotional symptoms | .66 | 0–10 | 42.3 | .0 | > 3 |
5 items | |||||
Conduct problems | .42 | 0–10 | – | – | – |
5 items | |||||
Hyperactivity-Inattention | .80 | 0–10 | 13.2 | 1.1 | > 6 |
5 item | |||||
Peer problems | .48 | 0–10 | – | – | – |
5 items | |||||
Prosocial behaviour | .71 | 0–10 | .5 | 28.0 | < 6 |
5 items | |||||
Total difficultiesa | .79 | 0–40 | 3.3 | .0 | > 13 |
20 items | |||||
Internalizingb | .67 | 0–20 | 26.4 | .0 | > 5 |
10 items | |||||
Externalizingc | .76 | 0–20 | 9.9 | .0 | > 9 |
10 items | |||||
6–11 years, N = 403 | |||||
Emotional symptoms | .76 | 0–10 | 27.5 | 1.0 | > 5 |
5 items | |||||
Conduct problems | .53 | 0–10 | 40.2 | .0 | > 3 |
5 items | |||||
Hyperactivity-Inattention | .83 | 0–10 | 13.2 | 2.5 | > 7 |
5 item | |||||
Peer problems | .67 | 0–10 | 46.7 | .0 | > 3 |
5 items | |||||
Prosocial behaviour | .74 | 0–10 | .2 | 34.2 | < 6 |
5 items | |||||
Total difficultiesa | .86 | 0–40 | 2.5 | .0 | > 17 |
20 items | |||||
Internalizingb | .80 | 0–20 | 17.6 | .0 | > 8 |
10 items | |||||
Externalizingc | .80 | 0–20 | 8.2 | .0 | > 10 |
10 items | |||||
12–18 years, N = 395 | |||||
Emotional symptoms | .70 | 0–10 | 33.2 | .0 | > 4 |
5 items | |||||
Conduct problems | .62 | 0–10 | 48.9 | .3 | > 2 |
5 items | |||||
Hyperactivity-Inattention | .82 | 0–10 | 18.7 | 2.3 | > 6 |
5 item | |||||
Peer problems | .68 | 0–10 | 38.7 | .3 | > 4 |
5 items | |||||
Prosocial behaviour | .71 | 0–10 | .3 | 22.8 | < 6 |
5 items | |||||
Total difficultiesa | .83 | 0–40 | 3.0 | .0 | > 14 |
20 items | |||||
Internalizingb | .75 | 0–20 | 17.7 | .0 | > 7 |
10 items | |||||
Externalizingc | .80 | 0–20 | 12.4 | .0 | > 8 |
10 items |
Normative scores
2–3 years | BOYS N = 100 | GIRLS N = 94 | TOTAL N = 194 | Boys vs girls (Mean) | Boys vs girls (% clinical) | |||||||||||
Mean
|
SD
|
Median
|
% clinical
|
Mean
|
SD
|
Median
|
% clinical
|
Mean
|
SD
|
Median
|
% clinical
a
|
T
|
p
|
Χ
2
|
p
| |
Emotional symptoms | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – |
Conduct problems | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – |
Hyperactivity-Inattention | 3.84 | 2.18 | 4.0 | 11.0 | 3.62 | 2.17 | 3.5 | 10.6 | 3.73 | 2.17 | 4.0 | 10.8 | .71 | .476 | .01 | .935 |
Peer problems | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – |
Prosocial behaviour |
7.34
| 1.78 | 7.0 | 10.0 |
7.87
| 1.62 | 8.0 | 6.4 | 7.60 | 1.72 | 8.0 | 8.2 | −2.18 | .031 | .84 | .360 |
Total difficulties
b
| 8.16 | 4.07 | 8.0 | 12.0 | 7.43 | 4.00 | 7.0 | 8.5 | 7.80 | 4.04 | 8.0 | 10.3 | 1.27 | .206 | .64 | .424 |
Internalizing
c
| – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – |
Externalizing
d
| 5.83 | 2.95 | 6.0 | 9.0 | 5.19 | 3.01 | 5.0 | 6.4 | 5.52 | 2.99 | 5.5 | 7.7 | 1.49 | .137 | .47 | .495 |
4–5 years | BOYS N = 112 | GIRLS N = 70 | TOTAL N = 182 | Boys vs girls (Mean) | Boys vs girls (% clinical) | |||||||||||
Mean
|
SD
|
Median
|
% clinical
|
Mean
|
SD
|
Median
|
% clinical
|
Mean
|
SD
|
Median
|
% clinical
a
|
T
|
p
|
Χ
2
|
P
| |
Emotional symptoms | 1.29 | 1.68 | 1.0 | 9.8 | 1.19 | 1.46 | 1.0 | 5.7 | 1.25 | 1.59 | 1.0 | 8.2 | .41 | .682 | .96 | .327 |
Conduct problems | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – |
Hyperactivity-Inattention |
3.51
| 2.47 | 3.0 | 13.4 |
2.71
| 2.53 | 2.0 | 11.4 | 3.20 | 2.52 | 3.0 | 12.6 | 2.09 | .038 | .15 | .698 |
Peer problems | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – |
Prosocial behaviour | 7.89 | 2.02 | 8.0 |
13.4
| 8.36 | 1.59 | 9.0 |
2.9
| 8.07 | 1.88 | 8.0 | 9.3 | −1.63 | .104 | 5.65 | .017 |
Total difficulties
b
|
7.30
| 5.00 | 7.0 | 11.6 |
5.77
| 4.38 | 4.5 | 5.7 | 6.71 | 4.82 | 5.0 | 9.3 | 2.11 | .037 | 1.77 | .184 |
Internalizing
c
| 2.46 | 2.53 | 2.0 | 9.8 | 1.87 | 2.02 | 1.0 | 4.3 | 2.24 | 2.36 | 2.0 | 7.7 | 1.66 | .099 | 1.86 | .173 |
Externalizing
d
| 4.84 | 3.33 | 4.0 | 8.0 | 3.90 | 3.25 | 3.0 | 8.6 | 4.48 | 3.32 | 4.0 | 8.2 | 1.87 | .063 | .02 | .898 |
6–11 years | BOYS N = 202 | GIRLS N = 201 | TOTAL N = 403 | Boys vs girls (Mean) | Boys vs girls (% clinical) | |||||||||||
Mean
|
SD
|
Median
|
% clinical
|
Mean
|
SD
|
Median
|
% clinical
|
Mean
|
SD
|
Median
|
% clinical
a
|
T
|
p
|
Χ
2
|
p
| |
Emotional symptoms | 2.17 | 2.30 | 2.0 |
10.4
| 1.99 | 2.10 | 1.0 |
4.5
| 2.08 | 2.18 | 1.0 | 7.4 | .87 | .388 | 5.12 | .024 |
Conduct problems | 1.34 | 1.52 | 1.0 | 7.9 | 1.12 | 1.35 | 1.0 | 6.5 | 1.23 | 1.44 | 1.0 | 7.2 | 1.52 | .130 | .32 | .572 |
Hyperactivity-Inattention |
3.92
| 2.88 | 3.0 | 14.9 |
3.17
| 2.66 | 3.0 | 9.0 | 3.55 | 2.80 | 3.0 | 11.9 | 2.69 | .008 | 3.34 | .068 |
Peer problems |
1.51
| 1.93 | 1.0 |
15.3
|
1.09
| 1.52 | .0 |
8.0
| 1.30 | 1.75 | 1.0 | 11.7 | 2.46 | .014 | 5.34 | .021 |
Prosocial behaviour | 8.11 | 1.93 | 9.0 |
12.4
| 8.47 | 1.79 | 9.0 |
6.5
| 8.29 | 1.87 | 9.0 | 9.4 | −1.94 | .058 | 4.12 | .042 |
Total difficulties
b
|
8.94
| 6.70 | 7.0 |
14.9
|
7.37
| 5.48 | 6.0 |
5.5
| 8.16 | 6.17 | 6.0 | 10.2 | 2.58 | .010 | 9.70 | .002 |
Internalizing
c
| 3.69 | 3.73 | 2.0 | 10.4 | 3.07 | 3.03 | 2.0 | 6.5 | 3.38 | 3.41 | 2.0 | 8.4 | 1.81 | .071 | 2.01 | .156 |
Externalizing
d
|
5.25
| 3.92 | 4.0 |
13.9
|
4.29
| 3.42 | 4.0 |
6.0
| 4.77 | 3.71 | 4.0 | 9.9 | 2.62 | .009 | 7.02 | .008 |
12–18 years | BOYS N = 215 | GIRLS N = 180 | TOTAL N = 395 | Boys vs girls (Mean) | Boys vs girls (% clinical) | |||||||||||
Mean
|
SD
|
Median
|
% clinical
|
Mean
|
SD
|
Median
|
% clinical
|
Mean
|
SD
|
Median
|
% clinical
a
|
T
|
p
|
Χ
2
|
p
| |
Emotional symptoms |
1.67
| 1.87 | 1.0 | 9.3 |
2.16
| 2.10 | 2.0 | 13.3 | 1.89 | 1.99 | 1.0 | 11.1 | −2.49 | .013 | 1.61 | .205 |
Conduct problems | 1.08 | 1.57 | 1.0 | 14.4 | .91 | 1.17 | 1.0 | 11.1 | 1.00 | 1.40 | 1.0 | 12.9 | 1.29 | .197 | .95 | .329 |
Hyperactivity-Inattention |
3.47
| 2.67 | 3.0 |
16.3
|
2.38
| 2.32 | 2.0 |
7.2
| 2.98 | 2.57 | 3.0 | 12.2 | 4.29 | .000 | 7.53 | .006 |
Peer problems |
1.79
| 1.97 | 1.0 |
11.2
|
1.21
| 1.62 | 1.0 |
5.6
| 1.52 | 1.84 | 1.0 | 8.6 | 3.24 | .001 | 3.92 | .048 |
Prosocial behaviour |
7.67
| 2.04 | 8.0 |
15.8
|
8.36
| 1.67 | 9.0 |
6.7
| 7.98 | 1.91 | 8.0 | 11.6 | −3.73 | .000 | 7.97 | .005 |
Total difficulties
b
|
8.01
| 5.71 | 7.0 | 10.7 |
6.66
| 5.25 | 6.0 | 6.7 | 7.39 | 5.54 | 6.0 | 8.9 | 2.44 | .015 | 1.97 | .160 |
Internalizing
c
| 3.46 | 3.18 | 3.0 | 10.2 | 3.37 | 3.19 | 3.0 | 11.7 | 3.42 | 3.18 | 3.0 | 10.9 | .28 | .782 | .21 | .649 |
Externalizing
d
|
4.56
| 3.64 | 4.0 |
13.0
|
3.29
| 2.99 | 2.0 |
6.7
| 3.98 | 3.42 | 3.0 | 10.1 | 3.80 | .000 | 4.35 | .037 |