Background
Methods
Criteria for inclusion
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Participants: ≥3 adults (to eliminate case reports which cannot be assumed to be generalisable) diagnosed with any type/stage of dementia or mild cognitive impairment (MCI) or where the mean Mini Mental State Examination (MMSE) score plus one standard deviation was ≤26, in any setting.
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Duration: ≥5 consecutive days (intake at a single meal or snack or over a short period of time has little overall effect on nutritional status, so we limited to ≥5 consecutive days to suggest longer term changes and patterns which may affect nutritional status).
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Intervention: aimed to indirectly alter nutrition or hydration status, food, drink or nutrient intake or increase meaningful activity by altering the dining environment or food service, providing education or training of people with dementia or their care-givers, providing a behavioural intervention, exercise, or a multicomponent intervention (>3 interventions, including at least one listed here).
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Primary outcomes: nutrition or hydration status, [10] meaningful activity or enjoyment of food or drink (activity around food or drink that is personally fulfilling, that people enjoy, look forward to or find important), quality of life. Secondary outcomes: quantity, quality or adequacy of food or fluid intake (including ability to eat independently, and swallow without aspirating). Note - studies were only included if they collected at least one of these outcomes, but where studies were included we also extracted, and report, data provided on the following outcomes: functional or cognitive status, views or attitudes, cost effectiveness, resource use, mortality and health outcomes.
Search strategy
Study selection and data collection
Data synthesis
Area | Questions from lay stakeholders | Review findings |
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1. Type of dementia
| For people with different types of dementia (Alzheimer’s, vascular, dementia with Lewy bodies, other types or mixed types), what interventions can help to maintain or improve food intake or nutritional status and fluid intake or hydration status? |
Not all interventions reported the type of dementia or cognitive impairment, but those that did enrolled people with AD or a mixture of people with AD and other dementias. There was no reason to suggest that effects of interventions in people with AD were different from those in people with mixed dementia, but more research is needed to clarify.
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2. Stage of dementia
| What interventions can help to maintain or improve food intake or nutritional status and fluid intake or hydration status in people with mild cognitive impairment, mild/moderate/severe dementia? |
Exercise and multicomponent interventions did not usually specify dementia severity.
MCI: One intervention assessed effects of resident and staff education for 269 people with MCI living in an old age hostel, finding no effects on weight or cognition (Kwok 2012).
Mild to moderate dementia: few interventions of dining environment and food service interventions included people with mild dementia. Educational interventions for formal care-givers included people with mild to moderate dementia but effects appeared to depend on the intensity of education and support, rather than degree of dementia of participants, with only the most intensive intervention appearing useful (Mamhidir 2007). Reminiscence cooking and a supported breakfast club, both interventions supporting social interaction, appeared to promote meaningful involvement in people with mild to moderate dementia (Santo Pietro 1998, Huang 2009).
Moderate to severe dementia: most dining environment and food service interventions included people with moderate to severe dementia, so results for these interventions are likely to apply to people with moderate to severe dementia. Educational interventions for formal care-givers included people with moderate to severe dementia but effects appeared to depend on the intensity of education and support, rather than degree of dementia of participants, with only the most intensive intervention appearing useful (Mamhidir 2007). Behavioural interventions in people with severe dementia appeared to promote eating independence, without improving nutritional status (Van Ort 1995, Coyne 1998, Beattie 2004).
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3. Setting
| • For people with dementia living in residential care or residing in a medical setting, what interventions can help to maintain or improve food intake or nutritional status and fluid intake or hydration status? • For people with dementia living in their own homes with or without a care-giver (full-time or occasional; close relative or paid care-giver), what interventions can help to maintain or improve food intake or nutritional status and fluid intake or hydration status? |
Most of the studies were conducted in various residential or nursing settings, and very few in participants own homes. Generally, effectiveness of interventions related to the effectiveness of interventions in residential settings. For people with dementia living at home nutritional education of caregivers and people with dementia appeared useful in supporting weight in one study (Riviere 2001), but not in two others (Suominen 2013, NutriAlz Trial).
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4. Emotional & social issues
| For people with dementia, does emotional closeness of the care-giver (e.g. close relative vs paid care-giver) affect the outcomes? |
Emotional closeness to the care-giver was not ever reported, and in most interventions care-givers appeared to be professional rather than family care-givers (also see “Setting”).
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5. Meaningful activity
| • For people with dementia, what interventions aimed at improving or maintaining food and/or fluid intake, nutrition or hydration status, support meaningful activity (activity around food or drink that is personally fulfilling, that people enjoy, look forward to or find important)? • For people with dementia, are there any interventions that decrease food or fluid intake, diminish enjoyment or quality of life, or diminish meaningful activity or social inclusion? |
Few studies measured quality of life or happiness using a validated scale, but some reported improved autonomy, involvement and interest of participants. There were suggestions that music at dinnertime might improve psychological wellbeing (Ragneskog 1996), familiar lunchtime music might increase social engagement (Thomas 2009), family style meals with staff training might improve mealtime participation (Altus 2002), nutritional education for people with dementia and their spouses living at home might improve quality of life (Suominen 2013), reminiscence cooking might improve happiness and feelings of participation (Huang 2009), and a facilitated breakfast club improve interest and involvement (Santo Pietro 1998). Fingerfoods, verbal prompting and positive reinforcement, behavioural interventions (spaced retrieval and Montessori activities), adapted Tai-Chi and cognition action exercise may improve eating independence (Jean 1997, Coyne 1988, Van Ort 1995, Lin 2010, 2011, Dechamps 2010).
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6. Individualised interventions
| Do individualised interventions appear more effective than those that are not individualised, in helping people with dementia to maintain or improve food and/or drink intake, nutrition or hydration status (or related outcomes)? |
Only a few interventions were individualised (Mentes 2003, Suominen 2007 and 2013, Kwok 2012, Huang 2009, Wu 2013, Rolland 2007, Beck 2010, Boffelli 2004 and Keller 2003), but these did not stand out as being more effective than others. One study directly compared a fixed intervention (spaced retrieval training combined with Montessori activities over 24 sessions) with an individualised approach (as the fixed intervention but with different sessions adapted to each participants learning response), and a control arm (Wu 2013). There were no clear differences between the arms: BMI improved in both fixed and individualised interventions, but depression was only reduced in the individualised arm.
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7. Interventions in acute illness
| Are there any interventions that are particularly effective in helping people with dementia to maintain or improve food and/or drink intake, nutrition or hydration status (or related outcomes) during periods of acute illness? |
None of these interventions were assessed on people who were acutely ill.
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Results
Study | Design | Setting, intervention type | No. | Dementia diagnosed | Dementia stage | Dementia type | Nutrition/hydration effect | Intake effect | Quality effect (including QoL or meaningful activity) and other outcomes | Duration |
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Altus 2002 [19] Period 1 USA | BA | Locked dementia unit. Family-style meals | I = 5 C = NR | Yes | Mod-severe | AD & others | NR | NR | ? Resident mealtime participation, ? Communication during meals, ? Praise by nurse (all improved but statistical significance unclear) | 5 days |
Brush 2002 [20] USA | BA | 2 LTC facilities. Improved dining room lighting and table setting contrast | 25 | Yes | Mod-severe | NR | NR | ↑ E intake | → Quality & adequacy of food intake, → Functional status | 4 weeks |
Charras 2010 [21] France | CCT | Dementia units in nursing homes. Shared mealtime with staff | 18 | Yes | Severe | AD | ↑ Weight | NR | ? Greater autonomy, helping with serving and clearing up, eating independently ? Increased and higher quality resident-resident and resident-staff interaction ? Longer meals ? Better food quality ? Greater staff satisfaction (improvements based on reported observations, no significance testing) | 6 months |
Desai 2007 [22] Canada | CCT | 2 LTC facilities, Bulk food service and home-like setting | I = 22 C = 26 | Yes | NR | AD | ? BMI | ↑ E intake ↑ CHO intake ↑ Protein intake | NR | 3 weeks |
Dunne, 2004 [23] Study 1 USA | BA | LTC unit. High & low contrast red tableware | 9 | Yes | Severe | AD | NR | → % Food intake ↑ % Fluid intake | NR | 10 days |
Dunne, 2004 [23] Study 2 USA | BA | LTC unit. High & low contrast tableware (3 conditions) | 9 | Yes | Severe | AD | NR | → % Food intake → % Fluid intake | NR | 10 days each |
Edwards 2013 [24] USA | BA | Specialised dementia units. Dining area aquarium | 70 | Yes | severe | NR | → Weight* | ↑ Quantity of food & drink intake | NR | 8 weeks |
CCT | 6 Care homes. Improved dining environment & atmosphere, available snacks and drinks machines, increased food choice, extended restaurant hours | I = 57 C = 48 | NR | NR | NR | → Weight → BMI → Appears hydrated | NR | → Enjoyment of food and drink → Cognition | 1 year | |
Koss 1998 [26] USA | BA | High functioning dementia unit. Dining environment enhanced lighting and contrast | 13 | Yes | NR | AD | NR | → Quantity of food intake | NR | 3 weeks |
McDaniel 2001 [27] USA | BA | Dementia unit. Large bright cafeteria style dining room vs small darker room with relaxing music | 16 | Yes | Various | AD | → Weight | → E intake → Fluid intake | NR | 2 weeks |
Perivolaris 2006 [29] Period 1 Canada | BA | LTC facility. Enhanced dining (small welcoming dining rooms, music, bread & coffee aroma, menu board, staff using cues and prompts) | 11 | Yes | Mod-severe | Various | NR | ↑ E intake | → Feeding ability → Agitation level → Resident satisfaction ? Residents eating more leisurely, less wandering, more relaxed (according to staff notes from focus group) | 6 weeks |
BA | Nursing home. Dinner music (soothing music, familiar tunes, pop music) | 20 | Yes | Mod-severe | Various | NR | ? Weight ↑ Food quantity (pop music) → Food quantity (familiar & soothing music) | ↑ Psychological wellbeing → Motor impairment → Intellectual impairment → Emotional impairment ? more time taken for meal | 8–10 days each | |
Shatenstein 2000 [31] Canada | BA | Dementia unit. Decentralised food service | 22 | Yes | NR | AD & others | → Weight, → BMI, → TST → AC ↓ Albumin | ↑ % food intake, ↑ E intake, ↑ CHO intake, ↑ Protein intake | NR | 10 weeks |
Thomas 2009 [32] USA | BA | Nursing home. Lunchtime music (variety of styles but familiar to participants) | 12 | Yes | Mod | AD | NR | ? Quantity of food intake | ? Anecdotal reports of increased social engagement, remaining in dining area longer, responding to music with dancing, foot tapping etc. | 8 weeks |
Van Ort 1995 [28] (contextual intervention) USA | BA | Secure nursing unit. Improved dining environment (protected mealtimes, noise & distractions minimised, meals taken in dining area, seated at tables, finger foods provided) | 7 | Yes | Severe | NR | → Weight | ? Quantity consumed | ? Greater self-feeding behaviour ? Meals did not take longer ? Those with milder dementia received more food and interacted more with their care-givers | 2 weeks |
Wong 2008 [33] Period 2 New Zealand | BA | Short stay assessment unit. 24 h snacks and earlier meals | 40 | Yes | NR | NR | ↑ BMI → AC | ? E intake | NR | 12 weeks |
Wong 2008 [33] Period 4 New Zealand | BA | Short stay assessment unit. Mealtime soothing music | 28 | Yes | NR | NR | ↑ BMI → AC | ? E intake | NR | 12 weeks |
Study | Design | Setting, intervention type | No. of participants | Dementia diagnosed | Dementia stage | Dementia type | Effects on nutrition and/or hydration | Effects on intake of food and/or drink and/or nutrients | Quality effect (including QoL or meaningful activity) and other outcomes | Duration |
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Altus 2002 [19] (Period 2) USA | BA | Locked dementia unit. Family-style meals plus nurse training | 5 | Yes | Mod-severe | AD & others | NR | NR | ? Suggested improvements in mealtime participation & communication, and staff praise statements, but no statistical significance provided. | 5 days |
Aselage 2011 [38] USA | RCT | Nursing home. Staff education in eating & feeding skills | I = 4 C = 3 | Yes | Mod | NR | → Weight | ? % Food consumed | ? Fall in QoL likely but significance not reported ? Eating impairment | 2 months |
Faxen-Irving 2002 [39] Sweden | CCT | Group-living for people with dementia. ONS & staff education vs usual care | I = 21 C = 12 | Yes | Mixed | Mixed | Education + ONS: ↑ BMI ↑ Weight ↑ TSF → AC → Albumin → Hb After ONS withdrawn ↓ Weight | → Nutrition risk | Education + ONS: → Functional status ↓ Cognition (MMSE) | 5 months |
RCT | Nursing homes. Education of surrogates on feeding options | I = 127 C = 129 | Yes | Severe | NR | ↓ Weight loss | NR | ? Knowledge, decisional conflict and certainty (only assessed for intervention group) | 9 months | |
Jean 1997 [40] USA | BA | Nursing home. Finger food menu plus staff training | 12 | NR | NR | AD & others | ? Weight loss arrest | ? ONS could be withdrawn in 25 % of participants | ? Feeding independence | 6 months |
Kwok 2012 [41] Hong Kong | RCT | Old age hostels. Resident & staff education with individual dietary counselling | I = 120 C = 149 | Yes | MCI | N/A | → Weight | → Fruit intake → Vegetable intake ↑ fish intake | → Cognitive status | 33 months |
Mamhidir 2007 [42] Sweden | CCT | Nursing homes. Substantial staff training & support in integrity-promoting care | I = 18 C = 15 | Yes | Various | Various | ↑ Weight | NR | ? Mealtime environment & routines (Qualitative analysis of staff diaries) | 3 months |
BA | Nursing homes. Hydration management staff training | 8 | NR | NR | NR | → Urine specific gravity | → Fluid intake | NR | 4 weeks | |
RCT | Outpatient clinics and hospital day-care centres. Personalised nutrition education program for people with dementia & caregivers | I = 448 C = 498 | Yes | Mild-Mod | AD, vascular & other | → Weight, → BMI, ↑ MNA | NR | → Eating behaviour, → Caregiver burden → Cognitive status → Functional status | 12 months | |
Perivolaris 2006 [29] Period 2 Canada | BA | Long term care facility. Staff education (1 day workshop to assist in providing meaningful dining experience) | 11 | Yes | Mod-severe | Various | NR | → E intake | → Agitation →Eating ability → Resident satisfaction ? Eating pace more leisurely ? Less wandering ? More relaxed. | 6 weeks |
Pivi 2011 [44] Brazil | RCT | Unclear. People with dementia & caregiver nutritional education program | I = 25 C = 27 | Yes | Mild-severe | AD | ? BMI, ? Weight ? AC → TSF → Albumin | NR | NR | 6 months |
Riviere 2001 [45] France, Italy & Spain | CCT | Living at home with informal care-giver. Caregiver nutritional education | I = 151 C = 74 | Yes | NR | AD | ↑ Weight, ↑ MNA | NR | → Functional status, ↓ Cognitive status | 12 months |
Suominen 2007 [47] Finland | BA | Nursing home. Staff training | 21 | Yes | Mod-severe | NR | → Weight, → BMI, → MNA | ↑ E intake ↑ Protein intake | ? Staff reported improved confidence in assessing intake and making nutritional changes | 12 months |
RCT | Community. Tailored nutritional training for people with dementia & spouses | I = 50 C = 50 | Yes | NR | AD | → Weight | ↑ Protein intake | ? Reported improvement in QoL | 12 months | |
Wikby 2009 [49] Sweden | CCT | Residential care. Dietary management staff training | I = 68 C = 59 | NR | NR | NR | → Weight → PEM → TSF → AC | NR | ↑ Functional status, ↑ Cognition | 4 months |
Study | Design | Setting, intervention type | No. of participants | Dementia diagnosed | Dementia stage | Dementia type | Effects on nutrition and/or hydration status | Effects on intake of food, drinks and/or nutrients | Quality effect (including QoL or meaningful activity) and other outcomes | Duration |
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Beattie 2004 [51] USA | BA | Dementia specific unit. Behavioural conditioning | 3 | Yes | Severe | AD | → Weight | → % Food intake → % Fluid intake | NR | 2 weeks (total 5 weeks) |
Coyne 1988 [52] USA | RCT | Dementia unit in nursing home. Verbal prompting and positive reinforcement by staff | I = 12 C = 12 | Yes | Severe | AD & others | NR | NR | ↑ Eating independence for solid foods → Eating independence for liquid foods → Frequency of eating solid and liquid foods | 2 weeks |
Eaton 1986 [53] USA | RCT | Skilled care facility. Gentle mealtime touch & verbal prompting | I = 21 C = 21 | NR | NR | NR | NR | ↑ E intake ↑ Protein intake | NR | 5 days |
Huang 2009 [54] Taiwan | BA | Older person care facility. Reminiscence cooking therapy | 12 | Yes | Mild- mod | NR | NR | NR | ↑ Feeling of happiness → Positive communication ? Participatory feeling → Cognitive function | 8 weeks |
Lin 2010 [55] Spaced retrieval Taiwan | RCT | Dementia unit. Spaced retrieval | I = 32 C = 24 | Yes | Various | NR | → Weight → BMI ↑ MNA | → Food intake | ↑ Improved eating difficulty | 8 weeks |
Lin 2010 [55] Montessori Taiwan | RCT | Dementia unit, Montessori activities | I = 29 C = 24 | Yes | Various | NR | → Weight → BMI → MNA | ↓ Food intake | ↑ Improved eating difficulty | 8 weeks |
Lin 2011 [56] Taiwan | RCT | Dementia unit. Montessori-based activities | 29 | Yes | Mild-severe | NR | → BMI → MNA | NR | ↑ Eating functional ability ↑ Eating ability → Eating time ↑ Self-feeding frequency | 8 weeks |
McHugh 2012 [58] USA | RCT | Memory support unit/care facility. Vocal re-creative music therapy | I = 8 C = 7 | Yes | Mild-Mod | AD & others | NR | → Proportion food eaten | ? Participation | 3 weeks |
Santo Pietro 1998 [59] USA | CCT | Dementia unit within a nursing home. Breakfast club (communication therapy) | I = 20 C = 20 | Yes | Mild-Mod | AD | NR | NR | ↑ Interest &involvement, ↑ Procedural memory ? Functional status ? Cognitive status ? Used humour & empathic statements, remembered names, responded to non-verbal cues, spontaneous singing, decreased distractibility & wandering. | 12 weeks |
Van Ort 1995 [28] Behavioural intervention USA | BA | Secure nursing unit. Systematic prompting, cuing, behavioural guidance & reinforcement | 7 | Yes | Severe | NR | → Weight | ? | ? Self-feeding behaviour ? Longer meal-times ? Increased independence | 2 weeks |
Wu 2013 [57] Fixed intervention Taiwan | CCT | Dementia unit. Spaced retrieval & Montessori activities | I = 25 C = 27 | Yes | Mild-severe | NR | ↑ BMI ↑ MNA | NR | → Depression | 6 months |
Wu 2013 [57] Individualised intervention Taiwan | CCT | Dementia units. Individualised spaced retrieval & Montessori activities | I = 38 C = 27 | Yes | Mild-severe | NR | ↑ BMI ↑ MNA | NR | ↓ Depression | 6 months |
Study | Design | Setting, intervention details | No. of participants | Dementia diagnosed | Dementia stage | Dementia type | Effects on nutrition and/or hydration status | Effects on intake of food, drink and/or nutrients | Quality effect (including. QoL or meaningful activity) and other outcomes | Duration |
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Chang 2011 [61] Taiwan | BA | Day care centre. Exercise (stretching, walking, weight bearing) with encouragement & rewards | 29 | Yes | NR | NR | NR | NR | → Feeding function ↑ Functional status | 4 months |
Dechamps 2010 [62] Adapted Tai Chi France | RCT (3 arms) | Nursing Homes & Long term care home. Adapted tai chi | I = 51 C = 60 | NR | NR | AD & others | NR | NR | ↑ Feeding independence → MMSE | 6 months |
Dechamps 2010 [62] Cognition action France | RCT (3 arms) | Nursing Homes & Long term care home. Cognition action | I = 49 C = 60 | NR | NR | AD & others | NR | NR | ↑ Feeding independence → MMSE | 6 months |
RCT (4 arms) | Nursing home (long term rehabilitation centre). High-intensity exercise ± ONS vs placebo activities ± ONS | Ex ± ONS 50 Control ± ONS 50 | NR | NR | NR | → Weight → Thigh muscle area → Whole body potassium | ↑ E-intake → Physical activity ↑ Muscle strength & mobility | → Mortality | 10 weeks | |
RCT | Residential care facilities. High-intensity exercise program (+/- protein supplement) vs control activity (+/- protein supplement) | I = 83 C = 94 | NR | NR | NR | ↓ Weight ↓ ICW | N/A | → Mortality → Balance ↑ Gait speed, self-paced → Gait speed, maximum ↑ Lower limb strength | 3 months | |
Heyn 2003 [64] USA | BA | Memory care residence. Multi-sensory exercise program (focused attention, flexibility & aerobic exercise, strength training, relaxation & breathing techniques) | 13 | Yes | Mostly severe | AD | → Weight | NR | ? Engagement ? Mood | 8 weeks |
Moore 2010 [65] USA | RCT | Nursing home and assisted living facility. Seated chair exercise with music | I = 43 C = 41 | Yes | Various | Various | NR | ↑ Quantity of food and fluid intake | → Eating ability | 3 weeks |
Rolland 2007 [66] France | RCT | Nursing home. Exercise program including aerobic, strength, flexibility, and balance training, plus walking | I = 67 C = 67 | Yes | Mild-severe | AD | → Weight → MNA | NR | ↑ Functional status | 12 months |
Study | Design | Setting, intervention type | No. of participants | Dementia diagnosed | Dementia stage | Dementia type | Effects on nutrition and/or hydration status | Effects on food, drink or nutrient intake | Quality effect (including QoL or meaningful activity) and other outcomes | Duration |
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RCT | Nursing home. Multicomponent (nutrition, exercise & oral care) | I = 62 C = 59 | NR | NR | NR | ↑ BMI ↑ Weight | → E intake ↑ Protein intake | → Mortality → Cognitive status → Functional status | 11 weeks | |
Boffelli 2004 [34] Italy | BA | Dementia unit. Diet & environment modification, feeding assistance and supplements | 29 | Yes | Severe | various | → BMI → weight ↑ albumin → Malnourished | NR | NR | 18 months |
CCT | LTC facilities. Individualised food service, food modification, education and dietetic time | I = 33 C = 49 | Yes | NR | AD & others | ↑ Weight | NR | ↑ Dietetic time → Hospital days → Mortality → Infections | 30 months | |
CCT | Nursing Homes. Staff assistance, prompting, food/drink service and exercise | I = 48 C = 15 | NR | NR | NR | → Serum osmolality, → BUN: creatinine ratio | → Food & fluid intake | NR | 32 weeks |
Dining environment and food service
Education/training
Behavioural interventions
Exercise interventions
Multicomponent interventions
Discussion
Aim | Potential interventions (presently unproven) which warrant early reassessment |
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Increase weight and/or BMI | o Eating meals with care-givers eating alongside (Charras)o Soothing mealtime music (Wong 2008)o Glass-door fridge with constantly accessible snacks and additional time for meals (Wong)o Extensive staff education and support (Mamhidir) – though smaller amounts of support are not so promisingo Education and support for informal care-givers of people with dementia (Riviere and Hanson)o Spaced retrieval and Montessori activities (Wu 2013)o Multicomponent intervention including chocolate supplements, gratin diet, exercise and oral hygiene twice weekly (Beck)o Multicomponent intervention including enhanced menu, more dietetic time, increased nutritional awareness and communication (Keller) |
Improve hydration | o No very encouraging interventions found |
Supporting meaningful engagement with food and/or drink | o Eating with care-givers (Charras)o Family style meals for people with dementia, enhanced further by staff training (Altus)o Extensive staff education and support (Mamhidir)o Facilitated breakfast club with supported involvement in preparing, conversing, eating and clearing up (San Pietro)o Multisensory exercise (focussed on attention, flexibility, aerobic exercise, strength training, relaxation & breathing techniques, Hayn) |
Quality of life | o Reminiscence cooking sessions (Huang 2009)o Appropriate, particularly familiar, music during meals (Thomas, Ragneskog)o Tailored nutritional training to people with AD and their spouses (Suominen 2013) |
Supporting eating independence | o Directed verbal prompts and positive reinforcement, systematic prompting, cueing and behavioural guidance (Coyne, Van Ort)o Spaced retrieval (Lin 2010)o Montessori activities (Lin 2010, 2011)o Adapted tai-chi (Dechamps 2010)o Cognition action (light to moderate intensity seated exercises, Dechamps 2010) |
Quantity, quality or adequacy of food or fluid intake | o Bulk food service (rather than pre-plated or tray service, Desai, Shatenstein)o Pop music during meals (Ragneskog)o Some lighting and contrast interventions to improve visual cues (Brush 2002, Dunne)o Encouragement of eating through gentle touch (Eaton)o Physical activity to familiar music (Moore)o High intensity exercise (FICSIT) |