Background
Methods
Research design
Participant recruitment and familiarization
Testing sequence
Procedures
Body composition
Muscular strength and endurance
Cardiovascular markers
Resting energy expenditure
Readiness to perform assessment
Cognitive function assessment
Anaerobic capacity test
Blood chemistry assessment
Statistical analysis
Results
Participant demographics
N | Age | Height | BMI | Body Weight | Fat-Free Mass | Body Fat | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
(y) | (cm) | (kg/m2) | (kg) | (kg) | (%) | ||
Overall | 25 | 21.7 ± 3.0 | 176.1 ± 8.2 | 25.0 ± 3.0 | 78.2 ± 13.0 | 61.0 ± 11.6 | 15.2 ± 5.2 |
Male | 20 | 21.4 ± 2.7 | 178.9 ± 5.9 | 25.9 ± 2.4 | 83.0 ± 8.5 | 65.5 ± 7.2 | 14.0 ± 4.8 |
Female | 5 | 23.2 ± 3.1 | 164.8 ± 5.4 | 21.7 ± 2.4 | 59.3 ± 8.5 | 42.9 ± 5.9 | 20.1 ± 3.2 |
Cardiovascular markers
Variable | Treatment | Time (min) | p-level | ||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Pre | 0 | 10 | 20 | 30 | |||
HR (beats/min) | PLA | 58.2 ± 9.5 | 60.4 ± 8.1 | 58.6 ± 8.5 | 59.6 ± 8.3 | 60.6 ± 8.4 | 0.84 |
PWS | 55.5 ± 7.3 | 58.2 ± 9.5 | 54.2 ± 7.2 | 56.5 ± 7.7 | 58.1 ± 8.1 | ||
PWS + S | 56.6 ± 7.2 | 57.5 ± 8.8 | 56.5 ± 9.5 | 58.4 ± 9.1 | 60.4 ± 10.8 | ||
SBP (mmHg) | PLA | 113.3 ± 7.6 | 114.3 ± 8.0 | 112.7 ± 6.8 | 114.3 ± 6.3 | 113.6 ± 6.6 | 0.52 |
PWS | 111.5 ± 7.1 | 112.4 ± 7.3 | 112.9 ± 8.6 | 112.8 ± 7.9 | 112.5 ± 8.2 | ||
PWS + S | 113.1 ± 7.8 | 112.5 ± 8.3 | 113.0 ± 9.6 | 113.9 ± 10.6 | 114.6 ± 10.0 | ||
DBP (mmHg) | PLA | 69.6 ± 6.8 | 69.2 ± 6.5 | 68.8 ± 6.3 | 69.5 ± 7.4 | 69.1 ± 7.1 | 0.51 |
PWS | 69.0 ± 6.7 | 70.7 ± 6.1 | 70.9 ± 7.1 | 70.6 ± 7.5 | 70.4 ± 7.7 | ||
PWS + S | 69.6 ± 7.2 | 70.0 ± 6.7 | 71.0 ± 6.8 | 71.1 ± 8.1 | 68.4 ± 13.0 |
Resting energy expenditure
Perceptions of readiness to perform
Questions | Treatment | Time (h) | p-level | ||
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Pre | 1 | 2 | |||
I am looking forward to today’s workout | PLA | 3.67 ± 0.85 | 3.61 ± 1.00 | 3.61 ± 0.87 | 0.21 |
PWS | 3.71 ± 0.77 | 3.89 ± 0.79 | 3.65 ± 0.65 | ||
PWS + S | 3.71 ± 0.99 | 3.82 ± 1.17 | 3.51 ± 1.09 | ||
I am optimistic about my future performance | PLA | 3.74 ± 0.83 | 3.70 ± 0.94 | 3.78 ± 0.88 | 0.02q
|
PWS | 3.88 ± 0.69 | 4.05 ± 0.73 a
| 3.83 ± 0.70 | ||
PWS + S | 4.00 ± 0.69 | 4.21 ± 0.62 a
| 4.01 ± 0.71 | ||
I feel vigorous and energetic | PLA | 3.23 ± 0.95 | 3.35 ± 0.90 | 3.38 ± 1.04 | 0.001 |
PWS | 3.19 ± 0.89 | 3.77 ± 0.78 *a
| 3.33 ± 1.09 | ||
PWS + S | 3.33 ± 0.77 | 3.89 ± 0.73 *a
| 2.96 ± 0.97 a,b
| ||
I have little muscle soreness | PLA | 3.60 ± 0.99 | 3.42 ± 0.99 | 3.29 ± 1.01 | 0.17 |
PWS | 3.54 ± 1.17 | 3.81 ± 1.35 | 3.25 ± 1.03 | ||
PWS + S | 3.13 ± 1.31 | 3.27 ± 1.28 | 3.21 ± 1.12 |
Cognitive function
Variable | Treatment | Time (h) | p-level | ||
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Pre | 1 | 2 | |||
Word (counts) | PLA | 120.9 ± 15.7 | 121.1 ± 16.6 | 122.6 ± 18.0 | <0.001 |
PWS | 116.7 ± 15.5 a
| 119.5 ± 15.4 | 124.6 ± 17.7 * | ||
PWS + S | 104.8 ± 11.4 a,b
| 115.0 ± 13.6 *a,c
| 116.8 ± 14.4 *a,b
| ||
Color (counts) | PLA | 89.9 ± 12.4 | 90.2 ± 13.6 | 93.8 ± 17.1 | 0.02 |
PWS | 91.2 ± 21.3 | 95.1 ± 19.9 | 99.4 ± 21.0 *c
| ||
PWS + S | 79.7 ± 10.5 a,b
| 84.9 ± 11.7 a,b
| 89.8 ± 12.5 *b
| ||
Word-Color (counts) | PLA | 66.4 ± 9.6 | 66.8 ± 14.9 | 71.3 ± 11.7 | 0.037 |
PWS | 67.5 ± 20.3 | 70.2 ± 21.6 | 74.6 ± 18.9 * | ||
PWS + S | 52.4 ± 10.6 a,b
| 57.0 ± 10.4 a,b
| 64.0 ± 10.8 *a,b
|
Performance assessment
Variable | Treatment | Total Volume | p-level |
---|---|---|---|
Bench Press 3rd Set Lifting Volume (kg) | PLA | 879 ± 440 | 0.086 |
PWS | 933 ± 460 | ||
PWS + S | 962 ± 500 a
| ||
Leg Press 3rd Set Lifting Volume (kg) | PLA | 6,712 ± 3,538 | 0.29 |
PWS | 7,295 ± 3,589 | ||
PWS + S | 6,825 ± 3016 | ||
Bench Press Total Lifting Volume (kg) | PLA | 2,166 ± 718 | 0.10 |
PWS | 2,217 ± 732 | ||
PWS + S | 2,268 ± 809 | ||
Leg Press Total Lifting Volume (kg) | PLA | 12,550 ± 4,321 | 0.30 |
PWS | 13,139 ± 4,409 | ||
PWS + S | 12,701 ± 3,866 |
Variable | Treatment | Value | p-level |
---|---|---|---|
Peak Power (Watt) | PLA | 1,578 ± 510 | 0.46 |
PWS | 1,502 ± 561 | ||
PWS + S | 1,491 ± 515 | ||
Mean Power (Watt) | PLA | 602 ± 131 | 0.61 |
PWS | 595 ± 145 | ||
PWS + S | 582 ± 188 | ||
Peak Power (Watt/kg) | PLA | 19.8 ± 5.1 | 0.51 |
PWS | 19.0 ± 5.2 | ||
PWS + S | 18.8 ± 5.2 | ||
Mean Power (Watt/kg) | PLA | 7.6 ± 1.0 | 0.78 |
PWS | 7.6 ± 1.2 | ||
PWS + S | 7.7 ± 1.3 | ||
Total Work (Joules) | PLA | 17,662 ± 4,605 | 0.49 |
PWS | 17,850 ± 4,340 | ||
PWS + S | 18,203 ± 4,658 |
Blood chemistry
Variable | Treatment | Time (h) | p-level | ||
---|---|---|---|---|---|
0 | 1 | 2 | |||
Plasma Creatine | PLA | 0.74 ± 0.27 | 0.69 ± 0.21 | 0.71 ± 0.24 | <0.001 |
(μmol/L) | PWS | 0.71 ± 0.19 | 3.13 ± 1.43 *a
| 3.10 ± 1.45 *a
| |
PWS + S | 0.68 ± 0.17 | 3.28 ± 1.13 *a
| 3.89 ± 1.61 *a,b
|
Variable | Treatment | Time (h) | p-level | |
---|---|---|---|---|
0 | 2 | |||
ALP | PLA | 79.8 ± 21.7 | 85.7 ± 27.5 | 0.70 |
(U/L) | PWS | 77.7 ± 31.1 | 82.3 ± 22.5 | |
PWS + S | 75.0 ± 19.2 | 82.2 ± 23.0 | ||
ALT | PLA | 29.5 ± 27.6 | 33.3 ± 32.9 | 0.26 |
(U/L) | PWS | 24.5 ± 11.0 | 28.0 ± 12.2 | |
PWS + S | 25.7 ± 11.7 | 27.1 ± 10.1 | ||
AST | PLA | 38.1 ± 60.6 | 44.9 ± 75.7 | 0.37 |
(U/L) | PWS | 24.9 ± 6.2 | 29.6 ± 7.1 | |
PWS + S | 25.3 ± 6.6 | 28.8 ± 6.5 | ||
CK | PLA | 713 ± 2354 | 836 ± 2786 | 0.33 |
(U/L) | PWS | 191 ± 104 | 231 ± 111 | |
PWS + S | 189 ± 85 | 223 ± 85 | ||
LDH | PLA | 182 ± 77 | 205 ± 115 | 0.55 |
(U/L) | PWS | 161 ± 18 | 187 ± 22 | |
PWS + S | 167 ± 26 | 192 ± 24 | ||
BUN | PLA | 15.9 ± 4.8 | 14.4 ± 4.1 | 0.013 |
(mg/dl) | PWS | 17.4 ± 4.7 | 15.1 ± 3.7* | |
PWS + S | 16.4 ± 4.0 | 15.9 ± 3.5 | ||
Creatinine | PLA | 0.99 ± 0.14 | 1.05 ± 0.16 | 0.037 |
(mg/dl) | PWS | 1.09 ± 0.17 a,c
| 1.23 ± 0.17 *a
| |
PWS + S | 0.97 ± 0.14 | 1.11 ± 0.17 *a,b
| ||
BUN: Creatinine | PLA | 16.2 ± 5.9 | 13.9 ± 4.9 * | <0.001 |
PWS | 16.2 ± 5.0 | 12.3 ± 3.2 *a,c
| ||
PWS + S | 17.1 ± 4.8 | 14.4 ± 3.4 * |
Variable | Treatment | Time (h) | p-level | |
---|---|---|---|---|
0 | 2 | |||
Cholesterol | PLA | 170.6 ± 34.6 | 182.8 ± 35.1 | 0.006 |
(mg/dl) | PWS | 187.3 ± 46.6 a
| 180.2 ± 36.9 | |
PWS + S | 161.7 ± 29.8 a,b
| 174.0 ± 33.5 a
| ||
HDL-c | PLA | 54.9 ± 13.3 | 60.1 ± 16.0 | 0.57 |
(mg/dl) | PWS | 52.2 ± 13.9 | 58.9 ± 14.6 | |
PWS + S | 54.2 ± 16.2 | 60.1 ± 18.1 | ||
CHOL: HDL-c | PLA | 3.2 ± 0.9 b
| 3.2 ± 0.9 | 0.001 |
PWS | 3.8 ± 1.3 a,c
| 3.2 ± 1.0 * | ||
PWS + S | 3.2 ± 1.0 b
| 3.1 ± 1.0 | ||
LDL-c | PLA | 104.3 ± 36.7 | 109.6 ± 41.2 | 0.55 |
(mg/dl) | PWS | 96.9 ± 31.9 | 104.5 ± 36.0 | |
PWS + S | 99.8 ± 41.2 | 104.6 ± 40.7 | ||
Triglycerides | PLA | 98.0 ± 58.6 | 89.3 ± 38.3 | 0.14 |
(mg/dl) | PWS | 109.5 ± 56.8 | 100.3 ± 47.5 | |
PWS + S | 88.3 ± 42.2 | 92.8 ± 54.6 | ||
Glucose | PLA | 90.2 ± 9.7 | 101.5 ± 14.4 * | 0.03 |
(mg/dl) | PWS | 100.1 ± 16.0 a,c
| 114.4 ± 12.6 *a
| |
PWS + S | 90.4 ± 7.3 | 113.8 ± 15.0 *a
|