Background
Windows of susceptibility (WOS)
Prenatal WOS
First author (Year) | Exposure | Outcome | Population | Sample size | Risk estimate | 95% CI | Notes |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Exposure during prenatal window | |||||||
Bonner (2005) [33] | Regional total suspended particulates | Breast cancer | Women 35–79, New York | 1166 cases and 2105 controls | OR 2.42 | 0.97–6.09 | > 140 vs < 84 μg/m3 TSP, postmenopausal women |
OR 1.78 | 0.62–5.10 | > 140 vs < 84 μg/m3 TSP, premenopausal women | |||||
Bocskay (2005) [32] | Personal airborne PAH; PAH DNA adducts | Chromosomal aberrations from cord blood | Newborns in Northern Manhattan; Bronx | 60 (32 female, 28 male) | Data not shown for PAH adducts | “No strong association” | |
Airborne PAH β = 0.14 | p = 0.006 | Linear regression line slope | |||||
Cohn (2015) [25] | Maternal o,p’-DDT | Daughter breast cancer | Mothers and adult daughters in Alameda County, CA | 118 cases and 354 controls | OR 3.7 | 1.5–9.0 | Fourth vs first quartile (> 0.78 vs < 0.27 ng/mL) |
Exposure during puberty window | |||||||
Tsai (2015) [82] | Serum PFOA | log-transformed SHBG | Taiwanese girls aged 12–17 | 65 | 2.96 (SE 0.34) vs 3.50 (SE 0.24) | p < 0.05 | Mean PFOA levels 90th vs 50th percentile (> 9.80 vs < 3.63 ng/mL) |
Data not shown | p > 0.05 | FSH and testosterone | |||||
Wolff (2015) [57] | Urinary phenols | Age at breast development | US girls aged 6–8 followed for 7 years | 1239 girls | Enterolactone: HR 0.79 Benzophenone-3: HR 0.80 Triclosan: HR 1.17 2,5-dichlophenol: HR 1.37 | 0.64–0.98 0.65–0.98 0.96–1.43 1.09–1.72 | 5th vs 1st quintiles of biomarkers |
Wolff (2014) [58] | Low and high molecular weight phthalate (MWP) metabolites from urine | Age of breast and pubic hair development | US girls aged 6–8 followed for 7 years | 1239 girls | Pubic hair development age: HR 0.91 Breast development age: HR 0.99 | 0.84–0.99 0.91–1.08 | 5th vs 1st quintiles of high MWP metabolites. Results null for low MWP metabolites. |
Wolff (2010) [59] | Low and high molecular weight phthalate (MWP) metabolites from urine | Stage of breast and pubic hair development | US girls aged 6–8 followed for 1 year | 1151 girls | Pubic hair development: PR 0.94 Breast development: PR 1.03 | 0.88–1.00 0.97–1.10 | 5th vs 1st quintiles of high MWP metabolites. Results attenuated for low MWP metabolites (p = 0.08). |
Windham (2015) [60] | PBDE, PCB, OCP | Tanner stage 2+ vs 1 (breast development) | US girls aged 6–8 followed for 7 years | 645 girls | PBDE: TR 1.05 PCB: TR 1.05 OCP: TR 1.10 | 1.02–1.08 1.01–1.08 1.06–1.14 | 4th vs 1st quartile. Results similar for pubic hair development. |
p,p’-DDT metabolites in serum taken after giving birth (initial DDT exposure likely before age 14 years) | Breast cancer before age 50 | Women in Child Health and Development Studies cohort | 129 cases and 129 matched controls | OR 5.4 | 1.7–17.1 | Highest vs lowest tertile (> 13.90 vs < 8.09 μg/L) | |
Breast cancer diagnosis during ages 50–54 | 153 cases and 432 matched controls | OR 1.88 | 1.37–2.59 | One-unit change in log2 (p,p’-DDT), approximately equal to a 2-fold increase | |||
Exposure during pregnancy | |||||||
Nie (2007) [115] | Regional total suspended particulates at time of first birth | Post-menopausal breast cancer | Women 35–79 in Erie and Niagara Counties | 220 cases and 301 controls | OR 2.57 | 1.16–5.69 | Highest vs lowest quartile |
Bonefeld-Jorgensen (2014) [83] | 16 serum PFAS during pregnancy including 10 PFCA, 5 PFSA, and PFOSA | Breast cancer | Danish National Birth Cohort | 250 cases and 233 controls | PFOSA: RR 1.04 PFHxS: RR 0.66 | 0.99–1.08 0.47–0.94 | Continuous per ng/ml. All other PFAS were null. |
Cohn (2012) [110] | Serum PCB during early postpartum | Breast cancer before age 50 | Women in Child Health and Development Studies cohort | 112 cases with matched controls | PCB 167: OR 0.24 PCB 187: OR 0.35 PCB 203: OR 6.34 | 0.07–0.79 0.11–1.14 1.85–21.7 | Highest vs lowest quartile (> 0.30 vs < 0.08 mmol/l) (> 0.66 vs < 0.38 mmol/l) (> 0.42 vs < 0.34 mmol/l) |
Pubertal window of susceptibility
Pregnancy window of susceptibility
Menopausal transition window of susceptibility
First author (year) | Exposure | Population | Sample size | Risk estimate | 95% CI | Notes |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Cadmium exposure stratified by menopausal status | ||||||
McElroy (2006) [165] | Urinary cadmium | Women aged 20–69 years | 246 cases and 254 controls | All ages OR 2.29 20–56 years OR 2.34 57–69 years OR 1.36 | 1.3–4.2 1.1–5.0 0.5–3.4 | Highest (≥ 0.58) vs lowest (< 0.263 μg/g) quartile |
Gallagher (2010) [166] | Urinary cadmium | Long Island (LI), NY and NHANES women aged ≥ 30 years | LI 100 cases and 98 controls NHANES 99 cases and 3120 non-cases | All ages OR 2.81 n.s. difference by age All ages OR 2.32 30–54 years OR n.s. ≥ 55 years OR 7.25 | 1.11–7.13 0.92–5.84 n.s. 1.04–50.7 | Highest (≥ 0.60) vs lowest (< 0.22 μg/g creatinine) quartile |
Itoh (2014) [157] | Dietary cadmium | Japanese women aged 20–74 years | 212 cases and 253 controls | All cases OR 1.04 Premeno. OR 1.01 Postmeno. OR 1.06 Post. ER+ OR 1.08 Post. ER− OR 0.99 | 1.00–1.08 0.96–1.07 1.06–1.11 1.03–1.14 0.92–1.06 | Continuous cadmium intake (μg/day) |
Amadou (2019) [160] | Long-term airborne exposure to cadmium | E3N French cohort aged 40–65 years | 4059 cases and 4059 controls | Overall OR 0.98 Premeno OR 0.72 Postmeno. OR 1.06 ER+ OR 1.00 ER− OR 0.63 | 0.84–1.14 0.45–1.15 0.89–1.27 0.82–1.22 0.41–0.95 | Highest (> 5.47) vs lowest (≤ 0.033 mg/m2) quintile |
Grioni (2019) [156] | Dietary cadmium | Italian cohort aged 34–70 years | 8924 total in cohort with 481 cases | Overall HR 1.54 Premeno HR 1.73 Postmeno HR 1.29 ER+ HR 1.64 ER− HR 1.30 | 1.06–2.22 1.10–2.71 0.68–2.44 1.06–2.54 0.60–2.83 | Highest (≥ 8.82) vs lowest (< 6.73 μg/day) quintile |
O’Brien (2019) [167] | Cadmium from toenail clippings | Sister and two-sister studies aged < 50 years | 1217 sister-pairs of cases and controls | OR 1.15 | 0.82–1.60 | Highest (> 0.011) vs lowest (< 0.003 μg/g) quartile |
White (2019) [161] | Residential census tract airborne exposure to cadmium at baseline | Sister study aged 35–74 years | 50,884 total in cohort with 2587 cases | Overall HR 1.1 Premeno 1.0 Postmeno 1.1 | 0.96– 1.3 0.78– 1.4 0.96– 1.3 | Highest vs lowest quintile |
Postmenopausal women only | ||||||
Julin (2012) [158] | Dietary cadmium | Swedish postmenopausal women | 55,987 total in cohort with 2112 cases | All cases RR 1.21 ER+ cases RR 1.19 ER− cases RR 1.33 | 1.07–1.36 1.03–1.36 0.95–1.87 | Highest (> 16) vs lowest (< 13 μg/day) tertile |
Adams (2012) [153] | Dietary cadmium | Postmenopausal women in VITamines And Lifestyle cohort | 30,543 total in cohort with 899 cases | HR 1.00 n.s. difference by ER status (p = 0.11) | 0.72–1.41 | Highest (> 13.3) vs lowest (< 7.48 μg/day) quartile |
Eriksen (2014) [155] | Dietary cadmium | Danish postmenopausal women | 23,815 total in cohort with 1390 breast cancer cases | All cases IRR 0.99 ER+ IRR 1.00 ER− IRR 0.88 | 0.87–1.13 0.85–1.15 0.62–1.22 | Per 10 μg/day increase in intake |
Adams (2014) [154] | Dietary cadmium | Postmenopausal women aged 50–79 years | 155,069 total in cohort with 6658 cases | HR 0.90 n.s. difference by ER status | 0.81–1.00 | Highest (> 14.21) vs lowest (< 7.10 μg/day) quintile |
Adams (2016) [162] | Urinary cadmium | Postmenopausal women ages ≥ 50 years in Women’s Health Initiative | 12,701 total in cohort with 508 cases and 1050 controls | All HR 0.80 ER+ HR 0.98 ER−/PR- HR 0.88 | 0.56–1.14 0.87–1.07 0.70–1.11 | Highest (> 0.748) vs lowest (< 0.325 μg/g creatinine) quartile |
All ages | ||||||
Sawada (2012) [159] | Dietary cadmium | Japanese women aged 45–74 years | 48,351 females total in cohort with 402 breast cancer cases | HR 0.87 | 0.61–1.23 | Highest (median 32.3) vs lowest (median 19.2 μg/day) tertile |
Nagata (2013) [164] | Urinary cadmium | Japanese women ages ≥ 25 years | 153 cases from one hospital and 431 controls invited for breast cancer screening | OR 6.05 | 2.90–12.62 | Highest (> 2.620) vs lowest (< 1.674 μg/g creatinine) tertile |
Gaudet (2018) [163] | Blood cadmium | Cancer Prevention Study II women 47–85 years of age | 816 cases and 816 controls | All RR 1.01 ER+ RR 0.89 ER− RR 0.96 | 0.76–1.34 0.62–1.27 0.44–2.09 | Continuous per μg/L |
Italian women aged 35–70 years | 292 cases and 294 controls | RR 0.80 | 0.61–1.03 | Continuous per μg/L | ||
Swedish women aged 30–61 years | 325 cases and 325 controls | RR 0.73 | 0.54–0.97 | Continuous per μg/L | ||
Combined 3 nested case-cohort studies | 1433 cases and 1435 controls | RR 0.84 | 0.69–1.01 | Continuous per μg/L |