Background
According to the Environmental Working Group (
http://www.ewa.org), numerous chemicals have been produced and used in the industrial, medical and agricultural areas, and an average of 2,000 novel chemicals are registered annually in the USA. There is a growing concern over synthetic substances that have the potential to interfere with endocrine systems and that subsequently impact the maintenance of homeostasis, reproduction, development and/or behavior in organisms by mimicking or antagonizing the biological functions of natural hormones [
1]. These are commonly called endocrine disruption chemicals (EDCs). The World Health Organization (WHO) defines an EDC as an exogenous substance or mixture that alters the function of the endocrine system and consequently causes adverse health effects in an intact organism, or its progeny, or (sub) populations [
2]. The group of EDCs is various and heterogeneous and includes industrial materials and their by-products: dioxin, bisphenol A (BPA), persistent organic pollutants (POPs), phthalates, pharmaceutical agents and pesticides [
3].
BPA, well-known EDC, has been widely used as a material for the production of epoxy resins, phenol resins, and polycarbonate plastics; as an antioxidant in PVC plastics for the packaging of foods (lacquered coating of food cans) and drinks (polycarbonate bottles); and as a thermal paper coating [
4,
5]. Some previous studies proved that BPA was toxic to endocrine functions in organisms by disrupting the ligand-activated estrogen receptor (ER)-mediated estrogenic activation [
6‐
9]. Besides, BPA was reported to increase the testosterone secretion and inhibit the cancer resistance protein in the human and murine cells [
10]. Because of the potent endocrine toxicity of BPA, the US Food and Drug Administration (FDA) warned of the possible hazards of BPA to fetuses, infants and children [
11], and many countries, including the US, the members of the EU and Canada, have restricted its use in products.
Due to the growing body of evidence on BPA toxicity, there have been extensive efforts to find and replace BPA with materials that are equally effective in its function but that are less toxic. Subsequently, bisphenol S (BPS), tritan, polyethersulfone (PES) and polyethylene terephthalate (PET) were proposed and considered to be safe alternatives for BPA. BPS, a BPA analog, has been broadly applied in the manufacture of resins and plastics because it is stable at high temperatures and more resistant to sunlight and biodegradation compared to BPA [
12,
13]. Additionally, PES is currently used in industrial resins and plastics because of its physical stability at temperatures as high as 200°C [
14]. However, their environmental suitability (i.e., less endocrine toxicity) to replace BPA used in products has not been thoroughly investigated. Recently, some studies have reported that BPS had a comparable weak estrogenic potency compared with BPA, which in turn could disrupt E2-induced cell signaling, leading to altered cell proliferation, cell death, and prolactin release [
13,
15‐
17]. To the best of our knowledge, there has been no study that evaluated the potential estrogenic activity of PES; however, this chemical (or metabolites) is likely to be estrogenic because it is a polymer form of BPS [
18,
19]. Therefore, the degraded form or metabolites of PES by physical and chemical reactions is likely to have a similar structure to BPS.
Most chemicals are metabolized once absorbed into the body, and some metabolites may have different chemical features and toxic potency from the parent chemical [
20]. BPA metabolites had a potent estrogenic activity [
17,
21] and have been shown to enhance or decrease estrogenic activity according to the metabolic pathways affected when compared with BPA [
20]. BPS metabolites produced by a rat liver S9 fraction had a weak estrogenic activity in transgenic yeast when measured by β-galactosidase [
22]. Grignard et al. suggested that the metabolites of BPS and BPA might show different estrogenic activity with respect to their respective parent chemicals, [
15] implying the necessity of investigating endocrine disrupting capacity between the metabolites as well as the parent chemicals, which could help us to understand the comprehensive environmental suitability of the chemicals as BPA alternatives.
In the present study, we estimated the estrogenic activities of BPA alternatives, BPS and PES, using a transgenic MVLN cell line that had a luciferase gene as the reporter gene. Moreover, we assessed time-dependent changes in the estrogenic activity of the metabolites of the two BPA alternatives. Finally, we discussed the suitability of BPS and PES as BPA alternatives.
Discussion
EDCs directly or non-directly affect the endocrine system through diverse mechanisms. Among many mechanisms, some chemicals choose an estrogenic strategy to mimic natural estrogens that directly bind to the ER and subsequently generate the unexpected endocrinal processes. Most studies have evaluated the estrogenic activity of intact chemicals and have frequently ignored the evaluation of their metabolites formed within the body. Once taken into body, the chemicals are catalyzed or metabolized by several enzymes such as oxygenases, hydrogenases and transferases. The metabolites of some estrogenic chemical by the S9 fraction showed a different level of estrogenic potency when compared to their original chemicals [
17,
21,
22]. Thus, in the EDC risk assessment, the estrogenic activity of metabolites must be evaluated as well as their intact chemicals.
BPA is widely used in various industries and is a well-known estrogenic disruptor as an ER agonist but not an antagonist. BPA binds to ER, and the BPA-ER complex induces various unexpected endocrinal effects such as birth defects, reproductive, developmental, immune disorders and hormone-related cancers [
29‐
33]. Because of its potent estrogenic disruption, the efforts to restrict its utility have been made and new BPA alternatives have been suggested. Among them, BPS has been recommended as one of BPA alternatives because it has a thermal resistance and a similar structure with BPA (Figure
1). Moreover, PES which is a polymer form of BPS linked by ether bonds has been also suggested as one of BPA alternatives (Figure
1). In the present study, we evaluated the estrogenic potency of E2, BPA, BPS and PES, and also assessed the estrogenic potential of each metabolite formed by rat liver S9 fraction.
In a primary dose–response ER binding assay, E2 showed estrogenic activity in all of the concentrations tested (Additional file
1: Figure S1). This is similar to the results of E2 estrogenic activity of other studies, indicating that the ER binding assay using the MVLN cell line in the current study was credible. Besides, the result of ER gene expression using real-time PCR supported that the estrogenic activity generated by chemical treatment was induced by ER binding but not overexpression of ER gene (Figure
3).
The estrogenicity of metabolized E2 by the rat liver S9 fraction was estimated and compared with intact E2. The estrogenic activity of E2 metabolites was decreased according to incubation times, which is in accordance with previous studies showing that E2 had a higher estrogenic activity than all of its metabolites. This result implies that the estrogenic potency of chemical can be changed by metabolism. In contrast to E2, BPA metabolites produced by the rat liver S9 fraction were known to show stronger estrogenic activity than BPA [
15,
20]. Among the BPA metabolites, 4-methyl-2,4-bis (4-hydroxyphenyl) pent-1-ene (MBP) was suggested to generate estrogenic activity [
17] and induced estrogenic effects in exposed organisms such as vitellogenin induction in the male medaka (
Oryzias latipes) [
34] and estrogen receptor mRNA induction in the rat [
35]. In our study, however, the estrogenic activity of BPA metabolites decreased. At 60 min incubation, the estrogenic activity was shown to be comparable with 0 time (data was not shown), indicating that the estrogenic metabolites were not generated within incubation time of our study. Although our result was different from the previous studies, estrogenic studies for BPA metabolites showed that the derivatives produced by metabolism had a different estrogenicity from BPA, suggesting the requirement of an estrogenic assay for metabolites with intact chemicals.
BPS has similar physical and chemical features to BPA, but the estrogenic activity of BPS was much lower than that of BPA at tested concentration of this study (Tables
1 and
2) different from the previous study reported that the estrogenic potencies of BPA and BPS were comparable [
15]. But, BPS showed the similar estrogenic activity to BPA in high concentration (see the 0 min of Figure
5). However, BPS showed dose-dependent estrogenic activity in the range of tested concentrations and the estrogenic activity of its metabolites also increased in some incubation time. This implies that BPS is not suitable as a BPA alternative. Similarly, in previous study, the estrogenic activity of the BPS metabolites that were measured using the yeast two-hybrid system and fluorescence polarization system increased after a 60 min incubation with the S9 fraction [
22]. Although there is no study of metabolites of BPS formed by S9 fraction, if BPS is metabolized like BPA, the dimer of phenol with the sulfonyl group formed by metabolism of S9 fraction was supposed as the estrogenic chemical.
In dose–response assay, BPA and BPS induced estrogenic activity whereas PES did not show any estrogenic activity at the concentrations evaluated (500 to 0.1 nM). PES is a polymer form having a long length and large size (approximately 55,000 MW). Thus, it is considered that it is not easy to bind to the ER, causing little estrogenic activity. But biologically or chemically degraded PES may have an EDC potential as like BPS because PES is synthesized by the nucleophilic polycondensation of both BPS and 4,4′-dichlorodiphenylsulfone at high temperatures in the presence of potassium carbonate [
18]. In current study, the estrogenic activity of the PES metabolites was observed at the ER binding assay. Interestingly, the weak estrogenic activity was also observed at high concentration (0.1 mM) of PES (in the dose response assay, the highest concentration of PES was 5 μM). Because some polar organic solvents such as acetone and acetonitrile can break the chain of PES (
http://www.spectrumlabs.com/dialysis/Compatibility.html and
http://www.coastpneumatics.com/chemres.html), it is not recommended that PES products be treated with these solvents [
36,
37]. Since acetonitrile was used to stop the metabolism by inhibition of S9 fraction, we considered that PES treated with acetonitrile generated estrogenic activity, thus the experiment to verify the estrogenic activity of the acetonitrile-treated PES was tried. But acetonitrile-treated PES showed similar estrogenic activity to acetonitrile-untreated PES, indicating that exposure for a short time in acetonitrile did not induce the estrogenic activity of PES. Some previous studies reported that the estrogenic activity was induced by BPA released from a bottle products of the polycarbonate synthesized by a reaction of BPA and phosgene [
38,
39]. Similar to BPA, the estrogenic activity of PES is suggested be caused by releasing a monomer or small sized polymer. In low concentrations, the amount of the estrogenic materials (monomer or shorter PES) was not enough to measure the estrogenic activity, but sufficient estrogenic materials seemed to present in high concentrations. During chemical treatment in the cell (72 h), the estrogenic monomer or small polymer would be released from PES and subsequently induced estrogenic activation by binding to ER. Actually, Simoneau et al. tried to detect the releases from PES on the simulant for milk 50% EtOH (as per Commission Regulation No. 321/2011 of 1 April 2011) and they certified that diphenyl sulphone was released from PES [
19]. But bisphenol S was not detected. Although there is no knowledge that diphenyl sulphone is an estrogenic chemical, this result suggests the potential of releasing of estrogenic chemicals from PES on other conditions. In addition, PES metabolites showed stronger estrogenic activity compared to intact PES, indicating that PES was metabolized to other chemicals having estrogenic activity. The PES metabolites showed comparable activity to BPS metabolites. There is no knowledge of PES metabolism and its metabolites, but some natural polymers formed by ether bonds such as dextran and chitosan are known to enzymatically degrade [
40], suggesting that PES is also able to cleave biologically. Our study provides the evidence that PES and PES metabolites have the estrogenic potency, which is the first report within our knowledge. Also, we hope that the estrogenic metabolites of PES will be identify in the further study.
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Competing interests
The authors declare that they have no competing interests.
Authors’ contributions
JSK participated in the design of the study, analyzed the results and drafted the manuscript. JSC carried out the EDC assay, metabolic procedure and statistical analysis. WKK and YJL participated in design of the study. JWP planed this study and commanded totally. All authors read and approved the final manuscript.