Ethnomedicinal value of karst paddy weeds: insights from Zhuang communities in Jingxi, China

Open Access
27.11.2025
Research

Erschienen in:

Verfasst von: Long Chen; Yujian Liu; Xuan Fan; Renchuan Hu; Shi Qi; Haiou Liu; Yujing Liu
Erschienen in: Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine | Ausgabe 1/2025

Abstract

Background

In rice paddy ecosystems, weeds have long been regarded as harmful organisms that restrict crop yields. Traditional management models rely heavily on chemical herbicides, which have triggered issues such as soil pollution, biodiversity decline, and disruption of ecological chains, becoming prominent challenges to the sustainable development of modern agriculture. This study is conducted in the Zhuang ethnic settlement area of Jingxi, Guangxi, China. As a typical distribution area of karst landforms and a biodiversity hotspot, this region is rich in ethnic traditional knowledge. It aims to break through the cognitive dichotomy between weeds and resources. The research focuses on the traditional utilization practices of paddy field weeds by local Zhuang people, with an emphasis on exploring their ethnic medicinal value. The aim of this study is to supplement the deficiencies of existing pharmacopoeias in the inclusion of ethnic medicinal plants, while providing a scientific basis and practical reference for exploring resource utilization-based sustainable management strategies for paddy field weeds.

Methods

Ethnobotanical survey methods (snowball sampling, semi-structured interviews, and participatory rural appraisal) were adopted to interview 160 local herbalists and villagers who provided informed consent. Simultaneously, plant specimens from field ridges were collected and identified, and the reliability of Traditional Ecological Knowledge (TEK) was ensured through cross-validation. Quantitative ethnobotanical indices, including Relative Importance (RI), Informant Consensus Factor (FIC), Fidelity Level (FL), and Economic Value Index (EV), were applied to validate TEK.

Results

A total of 154 weed species with ethnic medicinal value in Jingxi’s paddy field ecosystem were recorded, belonging to 60 families, with Asteraceae and Poaceae as the dominant families. One hundred and twenty-eight species (83.1%) were not included in the Chinese Pharmacopoeia, and 19 already included species showed significant differences in traditional efficacy compared with pharmacopoeia records. High-consensus uses (FIC ≥ 0.94) included tonsillitis, pancreatitis, and hair darkening. The significant medicinal properties presented by invasive species such as Bidens pilosa and Ageratum houstonianum provide pivotal empirical evidence for the resource-oriented management of invasive species. TEK was highly concentrated in the elderly group (43.13% aged 61–70), while cognitive gaps among the younger generation and excessive herbicide use posed dual threats to knowledge inheritance.

Conclusion

This study is the first to systematically reveal that paddy field weeds in Jingxi are an underdeveloped treasure trove of ethnic medicinal resources. The strategy of “utilization-based prevention, control, and conservation” not only provides a scientific basis for the sustainable management of weeds but also offers crucial support for supplementing medicinal resources, protecting biocultural diversity, and preserving traditional ecological knowledge.

Hinweise

Long Chen and Yujian Liu are co-first authors.

Publisher’s note

Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.

Background

The rice paddy ecosystem, as a core pillar of global food security, is crucial for the survival and development of humanity. However, in agricultural practices, plant communities in rice fields, aside from rice, have long been classified solely as competitive weeds, and their management model heavily relies on chemical herbicides. Since the mid-20th century, although herbicides have played a significant role in controlling weed damage, their long-term and widespread use has led to a series of severe ecological and health challenges: the evolution of weed resistance [1], the continuous loss of biodiversity (especially species with potential functions) [2], frequent crop phytotoxicity [3], the spread of environmental pollution [4], and increased public health risks [5]. These issues collectively erode the sustainable service functions of agricultural ecosystems [6].

It is worth noting that these plants, often regarded as weeds and removed, hold abundant ecological and cultural value that remains underappreciated [7]. Within local traditional medicinal systems, they play an important role and are a valuable yet underexplored source of medicinal resources [8‐11]. Ethnobotany, serving as a bridge between traditional knowledge and modern science, has increasingly become an important tool for uncovering the multiple functions of local plant resources (including weeds) [12‐14]. Existing research has confirmed that many weed species are core components of traditional remedies, for example, in South Africa, Bidens pilosa is used to treat headaches [15], and in Mexico, it is used to relieve stomach problems [16], providing locally accessible and economical medicinal sources for communities [17, 18]. However, the utilization of farmland weeds by different countries and ethnic groups has not yet been systematically sorted out or attached great importance to.

Traditional Ecological Knowledge (TEK) refers to the wisdom accumulated by humans through long-term adaptation to nature. It serves as a critical cognitive framework for understanding the human-nature relationship and achieving sustainable resource utilization. The maintenance and enhancement of rural ecosystem services are core dimensions of sustainable rural economic development, and TEK exhibits unique value in addressing ecological service management challenges [19, 20]. Protection TEK related to agricultural biodiversity plays an irreplaceable role in maintaining ecosystem resilience and preserving cultural diversity [21, 22]. However, this precious knowledge is at risk of rapid loss and urgently requires systematic scientific investigation for rescue documentation and cataloging.

The Jingxi region in Guangxi, China, boasts a unique and diverse cultural background dominated by the Zhuang ethnic group, which is China’s largest ethnic minority. Having inhabited Jingxi for over a thousand years, the Zhuang people’s traditional livelihoods are deeply intertwined with local paddy field ecosystems: since the era of the ancient Baiyue ethnic group, they have developed a rice-centered agricultural model, where various plants in paddy fields (including those defined as weeds in modern agriculture) have long been integrated into their local resource cognition system as readily available materials [23, 24]. Moreover, Jingxi’s rice field ecosystems, developed in karst landscapes, possess both ecological complexity and cultural distinctiveness, making it an ideal setting for studying the medicinal value of weeds and the TEK they carry [25]. Notably, we noted many of the common medicinal plants documented in Lin’s work (2012) at the Dragon Boat Festival Medicinal Herb Market in Jingxi County, Guangxi are common weeds accessible around paddy fields. These weeds are often employed to treat common ailments such as colds and inflammations, gradually forming a local knowledge system distinct from mainstream medicine; this unique cultural practice context lays a crucial foundation for this study to explore the ethnomedicinal value of paddy field weeds [26]. Existing studies indicate that mainstream pharmacopoeias seriously underestimate the medicinal potential of weeds in rice field ecosystems. Based on this, this study focuses on the Zhuang ethnic communities in Jingxi, aiming to achieve the following research objectives through systematic ethnobotanical surveys and interdisciplinary analyses: (1) Systematically document the medicinal effects and utilization methods of paddy field weeds in Jingxi, and evaluate their application potential using quantitative ethnobotanical indices; further, through cross-regional comparison with farmland ecosystems in similar habitats of the same ethnic group in Longsheng County, it reveals the regional commonalities and specificities of the medicinal traditions of weeds between the two regions; (2) Taking the Chinese Pharmacopoeia as the benchmark, accurately identify the differences between the traditional medicinal effects of weeds and the records in the Pharmacopoeia; screen species with potential medicinal value by quantifying the Informant Consensus Factor (FIC) and Fidelity Level (FL) of species with such differences, thereby providing an efficient ethnobotany-oriented path for the supplementation and improvement of the Chinese Pharmacopoeia while enriching the traditional knowledge of the modern medical system; (3) In-depth explore the medicinal value and utilization methods of invasive weeds, provide a scientific basis for constructing a resource utilization-oriented prevention and control strategy for invasive species, and offer an alternative solution to address the industry pain points of high cost and significant ecological risks associated with chemical eradication; (4) Based on the Degree of Informants’ Consent to Ecological Services (DES) scores and statistical analysis of the age and gender of informants, systematically diagnose the current status and risks of intergenerational inheritance of the Zhuang people’s Traditional Ecological Knowledge (TEK) in Jingxi, and provide a scientific basis for formulating targeted TEK protection strategies and maintaining biocultural diversity. By reconstructing the multifunctional attributes of weeds, this study advocates a paradigm shift from pure chemical eradication to TEK-integrated resource management, aiming to provide practical support for balancing agricultural ecological security, ethnic medicine development, and rural economic growth.

Methods

Survey area

Jingxi County is located in the southwest of Guangxi Zhuang Autonomous Region, China, under the administration of Baise City, situated on the China-Vietnam border (east longitude 105°56′~106°48′, north latitude 22°51′~23°34′) (Fig. 1). As an important land route connecting China with Southeast Asia, the city hosts key border ports such as the Longbang Port. Its unique regional advantages make it a potential hub for regional biological exchanges (including the spread of invasive species) and the dissemination of cultural knowledge. Geographically, Jingxi is characterized by karst peak clusters, depressions, and peak forest valleys, making it a priority area for biodiversity conservation in China and a global hotspot for karst biodiversity in the Northern Tropics [27, 28]. The climate is classified as South Asian tropical monsoon, with an average annual temperature of 19.1 °C, featuring no extreme summer heat or winter cold, and significant daily temperature fluctuations.

As a region with a high concentration of the Zhuang ethnic group, Zhuang people account for 99.64% of the total population in Jingxi. The area has a high degree of cultural homogeneity and is rich in traditional ecological knowledge (TEK) and ethnic medicinal practices. In agricultural production, rice cultivation is the core activity, with rice fields covering 47.2% of the total arable land area, mainly distributed in karst valleys and riverbank terraces, which are suitable for farming [27, 28].

This study focuses on the biodiversity-rich marginal habitats within rice paddy ecosystems, including field bunds, ditches, and abandoned lands. Field surveys were conducted in 10 typical Zhuang traditional villages under the jurisdiction of Jingxi City (Dongli, Miaotun, Fujun, Longzhu, Fujin, Bade, Qulei and Liuhe village) (Table 1), systematically collecting traditional ecological knowledge (TEK) of the local Zhuang people related to the use of paddy field weeds in ethnic medicinal practices.

Fig. 1

Location of typical Zhuang villages in Jingxi, China selected as study sites

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Table 1

Detailed information of research sites

Name	GPS		Altitude	Ecology	Ethnicity	Language	Religion	The number of research participants	Gender distribution of research participants
Name	Longitude	Latitude	Altitude	Ecology	Ethnicity	Language	Religion	The number of research participants	Male	Female
Fujin	23.12473	106.298641	762	peak-cluster depressions	Zhuang people	Zhuang language	Dao and Buddhism	22	10	12
Fujun	23.042147	106.327157	751					19	9	10
Qulei	23.375549	106.267972	813					20	11	9
Liuhe	23.222382	106.471445	802					22	12	10
Dongli	23.055037	106.434869	726					18	10	8
Miaotun	23.050711	106.465073	760					20	12	8
Bade	23.0665569	106.486838	698					18	10	8
Longzhu	22.949418	106.410726	640					21	10	11

Field survey and data collection

Before conducting the field survey, the research team systematically reviewed relevant literature to thoroughly understand the distribution characteristics of rice paddies, climate and environmental conditions, as well as the cultural background of the Zhuang ethnic group in Jingxi City. This laid a theoretical foundation for the scientific design of fieldwork. The fieldwork was conducted in two phases, in August 2020 and August 2021. It employed a combination of classic ethnobotanical survey methods, including snowball sampling, semi-structured interviews, and Participatory Rural Appraisal (PRA), to collect primary data [29, 30].

In the implementation process, the research team first selected local herbalists with whom they had prior contact and familiarity as initial informants. Under the guidance of key informants, field investigations were conducted along the rice field bunds, while simultaneously collecting weed specimens from the study area. Some specimens of certain species were properly sorted and stored in the Weed Herbarium of Nanjing Agricultural University, while others were documented through high-resolution photographs to record morphological features and complete species records. To ensure the collection of traditional ecological knowledge (TEK) adhered to international standards, the research team established an official partnership with the Jingxi City Agricultural and Rural Bureau and strictly followed the relevant guidelines of the Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) and the International Society of Ethnobiology (2008).

After the field specimen collection, the research team brought the weed specimens to the village of the informants for in-depth interviews. They also conducted participatory rural assessments with the villagers to cross-validate the information, enhancing the reliability of the data. The survey covered a total of 160 participants, including 84 males (52.50%) and 76 females (47.50%), with a balanced gender ratio. The age distribution showed distinct generational characteristics: the largest group was aged 61–70 years (69 people, 43.13%), followed by those aged 51–60 years (45 people, 28.12%), while only 7 people (4.38%) were aged 31–40 years, reflecting the fact that traditional knowledge is primarily held by the middle-aged and elderly groups (Fig. 2, for more detailed information, see Table 1).

During the survey, plant utilization information was systematically collected through guiding questions such as “Which weeds do you typically collect? What are their medicinal values? How often do you collect them?” snowball sampling was used to recommend informants, ultimately selecting 28 key informants. Given the linguistic complexity of the survey area, the research team specifically hired Nong Cai’ai, who is fluent in Mandarin, the local dialect, and Zhuang language, to serve as an interpreter, ensuring the accuracy of communication and the completeness of the cultural context during the interviews. Detailed information on the plant’s Chinese name, local name, Latin name, parts used, specific usage methods, and therapeutic purposes is compiled and archived in the Table 2.

Fig. 2

Demographic features of informants from study area

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Statistical analyses

The data in this research were analyzed using several quantitative ethnobotanical indices, including Index of informant consensus (FIC), Relative importance (RI), Fidelity level (FL), Economic value index (EV) and Degree of informants’ consent to the ecological service (DES).

(1) Index of informant consensus (FIC).

FIC is an indicative value of how many informants agree a specific plant use of a particular category. FIC is calculated as in the following formula [31].

$$\:FIC=\frac{{N}_{ur}-{N}_{t}}{{N}_{ur}-1}$$

N_ur: the number of use-reports in each category.

N_t: the number of taxa used.

(2) Relative Importance (RI).

The RI index theoretically varies from 0 when nobody mentions any use of the plant, to 1 in the case where the plant was the most frequently mentioned as useful and in the maximum number of use-categories [32].

$$\:\text{R}\text{I}\text{s}=\frac{\text{R}\text{F}\text{C}\text{s}\left(\text{m}\text{a}\text{x}\right)+\text{R}\text{N}\text{U}\text{s}\left(\text{m}\text{a}\text{x}\right)}{2}$$

RFC_{s (max)}: the relative frequency of citation over the maximum.

$$\:\text{R}\text{F}\text{C}\text{s}\left(\text{m}\text{a}\text{x}\right)=\frac{\text{F}\text{C}\text{s}}{\text{m}\text{a}\text{x}\left(\text{F}\text{C}\right)}$$

FCs: frequency of citation, the number of respondents who mentioned the usage of the species.

max (FC): The maximum value of the frequency of citation among all the species surveyed.

RNU_{s (max)}: the relative number of use-categories over the maximum.

$$\:\text{R}\text{N}\text{U}\text{s}\left(\text{m}\text{a}\text{x}\right)=\frac{\text{N}\text{U}\text{s}}{\text{m}\text{a}\text{x}\left(\text{N}\text{U}\right)}$$

NUs: number of uses, the number of usage categories for a single species.

max (NU): the maximum number of uses among all the species surveyed.

(3) Fidelity level (FL).

It is used to determine the species most frequently used by informants to treat a particular disease category. FL calculated of 100% for specific plant species indicates that all informants mentioned the same species to treat the same ailment category [33]. While a low FL calculated indicates that the same or different parts of the same plant are used for other ailment categories. It is calculated using the following formula:

$$\:\text{F}\text{L}= \left(\frac{N_{p}}{N}\right)\times 100$$

Np: the number of informants citing the use of the plant for a particular disease category.

N: the total number of informants citing the plant for any disease category.

(4) Economic Value Index (EV).

The economic value index is often used to assess the economic value of local people’s collection and utilization of a particular weed [34].

$$\:{\text{E}\text{V}}_{\text{e}}={\text{O}\text{e}}_{\text{e}}\times\:{Pe}_{e}$$

Oe_e: the number of households of key informants and villagers that have used the plant.

Pe_e: the price of the plant is not clearly defined, as these weeds are easily collected. Instead, it can be calculated using the time spent by locals to gather the plant multiplied by the average hourly wage of locals. Since the collection time is difficult to estimate, as they are all field-side weeds, it is standardized to 1. The wage of farmers is 15 yuan per hour, so we have set the value of Pe_e as 15.

(5) Degree of informants’ consent to the ecological service (DES).

The DES is preset to range from 1 to 5. We assign scores based on the frequency of weed collection by informants over the past year. If an informant has not collected weeds in the past year, they score 1 point; if they collected less than 5 times, they score 2 points; approximately 10 times earns them 3 points; collecting 2 to 5 times per month scores 4 points; and collecting more than 5 times per month scores 5 points. These scores reflect the informants’ understanding of the plant resources in their rural ecosystems and their available Traditional Ecological Knowledge (TEK). The 160 participants are categorized by age and gender to analyze the differences in DES across these factors. The survey results are analyzed for significant differences using IBM SPSS Statistics 23. An independent sample t-test is used to examine the relationship between the gender of informants and DES. The results are presented in grouped bar charts.

(6) Both Jingxi and Longsheng are Zhuang ethnic minority-concentrated areas in Guangxi, with rice-farming agriculture as their core livelihood. Additionally, both regions are situated within the southwest karst landform zone (Jingxi is characterized by karst peak-cluster depressions, while Longsheng is distinguished by its karst terraced fields). The coefficient of similarity (S) of paddy seeds between Jingxi and Longsheng regions was calculated by the following formula [35]:

$$\text{S} = 2c/(a + b)$$

Where a and b represent the species used by Jingxi and Longsheng regions, respectively; c represents the number of species common to both regions.

Results

Species composition and classification characteristics of medicinal weeds in paddy fields

A total of 154 species of medicinal weeds with ethnobotanical value were recorded in the Jingxi paddy field ecosystem (including edge habitats such as field bunds, ditches, and wastelands), belonging to 60 families and 124 genera (see Table 1 for details).

From the perspective of family and genus composition, the largest family is Asteraceae, with 21 species recorded (13.6% of the total species), including representative species such as Bidens pilosa L. and Prunella vulgaris L.; followed by Poaceae, with 14 species (9.1%), including Eleusine indica (L.) Gaertn. and Imperata cylindrica (L.) Beauv.; the third-largest family is Lamiaceae, with 11 species (7.1%), represented by species such as Ajuga ciliata Bunge (Fig. 3). In addition to these three families, the Fabaceae family has 9 species, Polygonaceae has 7 species, Amaranthaceae has 5 species, and Malvaceae, Acanthaceae, Urticaceae, and Phyllanthaceae each have 4 species. Convolvulaceae, Moraceae, Verbenaceae, Melastomataceae, and Selaginellaceae each have 3 species. The remaining 46 families have fewer than 3 species each, accounting for 46.8% of the total number of families. This distribution characteristic reflects the coexistence of concentration and diversity in the family and genus composition of medicinal weeds in the Jingxi paddy fields.

Fig. 3

Family rank of weedy species used for ethnomedicine in rice paddy field ecosystem of Jingxi

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Table 2

Ethnobotanical uses of the paddy weeds from Zhuang communities in Jingxi

S.#	Botanical Name	Family Name	Chinese name	Chinese pinyin	Local name	Part Used	Application mode	Local therapeutic uses	Quantitative indices					Chinese Pharmacopeial			Risk levels of invasion	Specimen number
S.#	Botanical Name	Family Name	Chinese name	Chinese pinyin	Local name	Part Used	Application mode	Local therapeutic uses	RFC_s(max)	RNU_s(max)	RI	FL	EV	Pharmacopoeia records	Part used	Pharmacopoeia efficacy	Risk levels of invasion	Specimen number
1	Abelmoschus moschatus Medicus	Malvaceae	黄葵	huáng kuí	Hai pei	Root	Boil water for oral administration; Mash and apply externally	Gastritis; Pull out pus	0.07	0.33	0.20	63.64	165	Not included			7	JX0080
2	Acalypha australis L.	Euphorbiaceae	铁苋菜	tiě xiàn cài	Hai beng han zhu	Aerial part	Boil water for oral administration	Hemorrhoid; Gastroenteritis	0.10	0.33	0.22	56.25	240	Chinese PharmacopeiaI (1977) P480	Aerial part	Clear heat and relieve toxicity; Drain dampness; Stop bleeding	7	JX0088
3	Achyranthes aspera L.	Amaranthaceae	土牛膝	tǔ niú xī	Pia nong mo	Root tuber	Boil water for oral administration; Soak in wine and wash	Clear heat and relieve toxicity	0.06	0.17	0.11	100.00	135	Not included			7	JX0141
4	Aerva sanguinolenta (L.) Blume	Amaranthaceae	白花苋	bái huā xiàn	Pai han kao	Whole plant	Boil water for oral administration	Promote urination	0.04	0.17	0.11	100.00	105	Not included				JX0142
5	Ageratum conyzoides L.	Asteraceae	藿香蓟	huò xiāng jì	Ya guang ma	Leaf	Mash and apply externally	Stop bleeding	0.09	0.17	0.13	100.00	225	Not included			1	JX0057
6	Ageratum houstonianum Miller	Asteraceae	熊耳草	xióng ěr cǎo	Pai jia kai	Leaf	Boil water for oral administration	Tonsillitis	0.09	0.17	0.13	100.00	210	Not included			2	JX0077
7	Agrimonia pilosa Ldb.	Rosaceae	龙芽草	lóng yá cǎo	Gua xiang cao	Bud; Leaf	Boil water for oral administration; Mash and apply externally	Acquired immunodeficiency syndrome; Stop bleeding	0.11	0.33	0.22	64.71	255	Not included				JX0093
8	Ajuga ciliata Bunge	Lamiaceae	筋骨草	jīn gǔ cǎo	Ge gu you	Whole plant	Mash and apply externally	Relieve itching	0.04	0.17	0.11	100.00	105	Chinese PharmacopeiaI (2020) P361	Whole plant	Clear heat and relieve toxicity; Cool the blood and reduce swelling		JX0138
9	Alternanthera philoxeroides (Mart.) Griseb.	Amaranthaceae	喜旱莲子草	xǐ hàn lián zǐ cǎo	Te mei	Aerial part; Whole plant	Boil water for oral administration	Activate blood circulation and remove blood stasis; Cold; Stop bleeding	0.16	0.67	0.41	46.15	390	Not included			1	JX0144
10	Alternanthera sessilis (L.) DC.	Amaranthaceae	莲子草	lián zǐ cǎo	Pai biao	Whole plant	Boil water for oral administration	Relieve pain	0.09	0.17	0.13	100.00	225	Not included				JX0079
11	Andrographis paniculata (Burm. F.) Nees	Acanthaceae	穿心草	chuān xīn lián	Ding xin feng	Whole plant	Mash and apply externally	Anti-inflammatory; Relieve pain	0.08	0.33	0.21	53.85	195	Not included			5	JX0128
12	Anredera cordifolia (Tenore) Steenis	Basellaceae	落葵薯	luò kuí shǔ	Tu san qi	Whole plant	Mash and apply externally; Stew	Stop bleeding; Internal injury	0.08	0.33	0.20	66.67	180	Not included			1	JX0115
13	Artemisia indica Willd.	Asteraceae	五月艾	wǔ yuè ài	Ya a.i.	Leaf	Mash and apply externally; Stir-fry	Relieve itching; Relieve fatigue	0.10	0.33	0.22	75.00	240	Not included				/
14	Artemisia argyi Lévl. et Van.	Asteraceae	艾	ài	Niang a.i.	Leaf	Stir-fry; Boil water for oral administration	Dispel cold	0.16	0.17	0.16	100.00	375	Chinese PharmacopeiaI (2020) P91	Leaf	Warm the meridians and stop bleeding; Dispel cold and relieve pain; Topical application for relieving dampness and itching		/
15	Arthraxon hispidus (Trin.) Makino	Poaceae	荩草	jìn cǎo	Guo ya yong	Aerial part	Chew and hold in mouth	Oral ulcers	0.03	0.17	0.10	100.00	75	Not included				JX0024/JX0034
16	Arthraxon prionodes (Steudel) Dandy	Poaceae	茅叶荩草	máo yè jìn cǎo	/	Whole plant	Boil water for oral administration	Hepatitis	0.04	0.17	0.10	100.00	90	Not included				JX0103
17	Asarum caudigerum Hance	Aristolochiaceae	尾花细辛	wěi huā xì xīn	Xiao ma yao	Root	Boil water for oral administration	Tonsillitis	0.03	0.17	0.10	100.00	75	Not included				JX0140
18	Aster indicus L.	Asteraceae	马兰	mǎ lán	Ya rong ting	Whole plant	Boil water for oral administration	Cough relief; Cold; Hepatitis; Clear heat and relieve toxicity; Infant malnutrition	0.09	0.67	0.38	60.00	225	Chinese PharmacopeiaI (1977) P67	Whole plant	Regulate Qi; Aid digestion; Clear damp-heat		JX0046
19	Aster tataricus L. f.	Asteraceae	紫菀	zǐ wǎn	Qing wan	Whole plant	Boil water for oral administration; Mash and apply externally	Cold; Stop diarrhea; Acne	0.07	0.50	0.28	54.55	165	Chinese PharmacopeiaI (2020) P357	Root; Rhizome	Moistens the lungs and lowers Qi; Relieve phlegm and suppress cough		JX0139
20	Axonopus compressus (Sw.) Beauv.	Poaceae	地毯草	dì tǎn cǎo	Pa pi mei lan	Whole plant	Mash and apply externally	Bruises	0.06	0.17	0.11	100.00	150	Not included				JX0006
21	Berchemia floribunda (Wall.) Brongn.	Rhamnaceae	多花勾儿茶	duō huā gōu ér chá	Ma kou kie	Whole plant	Boil water for oral administration; Boil water for washing	Rheumatism	0.05	0.17	0.11	100.00	120	Not included				JX0036
22	Berchemia lineata (L.) DC.	Rhamnaceae	铁包金	tiě bāo jīn	Ya kang nang	Stem; Leaf	Boil water for oral administration; Mash and apply externally	Anti-inflammatory; Bruises	0.09	0.33	0.21	57.14	210	Not included				JX0020
23	Bidens pilosa L.	Asteraceae	白花鬼针草	guǐ zhēn cǎo	Kuang no	Aerial part/Whole plant	Boil water for oral administration; Take directly orally; Boil water for washing	Lower blood pressure; Anti-cancer; Pancreatitis; Stop diarrhea; Skin disease	0.21	0.83	0.52	57.58	495	Not included			1	JX0003
24	Blumea balsamifera (L.) DC.	Asteraceae	艾纳香	ài nà xiāng	Ban hong	Whole plant	Boil water for washing	Rheumatism	0.12	0.17	0.14	100.00	285	Not included				JX0004
25	Boehmeria clidemioides var. diffusa (Wedd.)Hand.-Mazz.	Urticaceae	序叶苎麻	xù yè zhù má	Guo nai	Whole plant	Boil water for oral administration	Anti-cancer	0.03	0.17	0.10	100.00	60	Not included				/
26	Boehmeria penduliflora Wedd. ex Long	Urticaceae	长叶苎麻	cháng yè zhù má	Guo nai	Stem; Leaf	Boil water for oral administration	Gastroenteritis; Stop diarrhea	0.15	0.33	0.24	91.67	360	Not included				/
27	Bryophyllum pinnatum (L. f.) Oken	Crassulaceae	落地生根	luò dì shēng gēn	Ya bei bou	Whole plant	Boil water for washing	Rheumatism	0.05	0.17	0.11	100.00	120	Not included			5	/
28	Campanumoea javanica Bl.	Campanulaceae	金钱豹	jīn qián bào	Lan lei gei	Root tuber	Stew	Tonify qi	0.03	0.17	0.10	100.00	60	Not included				JX0067
29	Carpesium abrotanoides L.	Asteraceae	天名精	tiān míng jīng	Tian ming jing	Whole plant	Mash and apply externally	Relaxation of tendons and joints; Activate blood circulation and remove blood stasis	0.07	0.33	0.20	81.82	165	Not included			7	JX0099
30	Cayratia japonica (Thunb.) Gagnep.	Vitaceae	乌蔹莓	wū liǎn méi	Kou eou	Whole plant	Boil water for oral administration	Hepatitis	0.04	0.17	0.11	100.00	105	Not included			7	JX0145
31	Centella asiatica (L.) Urban	Apiaceae	积雪草	jī xuě cǎo	Pia nuo	Whole plant	Boil water for oral administration	Clear heat and relieve toxicity	0.04	0.17	0.11	100.00	105	Chinese PharmacopeiaI (2020) P296	Whole plant	Clear heat and relieve toxicity; Drain dampness; reduce swelling		JX0091
32	Centipeda minima (L.) A. Br. et Aschers.	Asteraceae	石胡荽	shí hú suī	Ren mei	Whole plant	Mash and apply externally	Relaxation of tendons and joints	0.03	0.17	0.10	100.00	75	Not included				JX0039
33	Chromolaena odorata (Linnaeus) R. M. King & H. Robinson	Asteraceae	飞机草	fēi jī cǎo	Jie fang cao	Whole plant	Mash and apply externally; Boil water for oral administration; Dry and use as bed pad	Bruises; Cold; Calming the nerves	0.11	0.50	0.30	64.71	255	Not included			1	JX0042
34	Chrysanthemum indicum Linnaeus	Chrysanthemum	野菊	yě jú	Ke hua gai	Flower	Boil water for oral administration	Lower blood pressure	0.18	0.17	0.17	100.00	435	Chinese PharmacopeiaI (2020) P328	Inflorescence	Clear heat and relieve toxicity; Clear heat and calm the liver		JX0058
35	Chrysopogon aciculatus (Retz.) Trin.	Poaceae	竹节草	zhú jié cǎo	Zhang jie	Leaf	Mash and apply externally	Stop bleeding	0.04	0.17	0.11	100.00	105	Not included				JX0098
36	Clerodendrum bungei Steud.	Lamiaceae	臭牡丹	chòu mǔ dān	Wa qiu	Leaf	Mash and apply externally	Scald	0.14	0.17	0.15	100.00	330	Not included				JX0026
37	Clerodendrum serratum var. amplexifolium Moldenke	Lamiaceae	三台花	sān tái huā	San tai hua	Stem; Leaf	Boil water for washing	Relieve pain	0.11	0.17	0.14	100.00	255	Not included				JX0118
38	Clinopodium polycephalum (Vaniot) C. Y. Wu et Hsuan ex P. S. Hsu	Lamiaceae	灯笼草	dēng lóng cǎo	Pai dang long	Whole plant	Boil water for oral administration	Hepatitis	0.04	0.17	0.10	100.00	90	Not included				JX0030
39	Commelina benghalensis Linnaeus	Commelinaceae	饭包草	fàn bāo cǎo	Pia kou bei	Whole plant	Mash and apply externally	Bone setting	0.04	0.17	0.10	100.00	90	Not included				JX0084
40	Commelina diffusa N. L. Burm.	Commelinaceae	竹节菜	zhú jié cài	Mai piao	Whole plant	Boil water for oral administration	Gonorrhea; Bone setting	0.06	0.33	0.20	70.00	150	Not included				JX0151
41	Curcuma longa L.	Zingiberaceae	姜黄	jiāng huáng	Ka meng	Tuber	Mash and apply externally	Bone setting	0.11	0.17	0.14	100.00	270	Chinese PharmacopeiaI (2020) P276	Rhizome	Promote blood circulation and regulate Qi; Regulate menstruation and stop bleeding		/
42	Cuscuta chinensis Lam.	Convolvulaceae	菟丝子	tù sī zǐ	Fei fa	Whole plant	Dry and use as bed pad; Boil water for washing	Sleep aid	0.05	0.17	0.11	100.00	120	Chinese PharmacopeiaI (2020) P322	Seed	Nourish the liver and kidneys; Preserve semen and reduce urination; Pregnancy preservation、Brighten the eyes; Stop diarrhea	7	/
43	Cuscuta japonica Choisy	Convolvulaceae	金灯藤	jīn dēng téng	Kou	Whole plant	Boil water for oral administration	Coronary heart disease	0.03	0.17	0.10	100.00	60	Not included			7	JX0074
44	Dendrobium nobile Lindl.	Orchidaceae	石斛	shí hú	Mai ma king	Fruit	Boil water for oral administration; Take it internally with wine	Hepatitis; Tuberculosis	0.04	0.33	0.19	71.43	105	Chinese PharmacopeiaI (2020) P94	Stem	Nourish the stomach and generate fluids; Nourish yin and clear heat		/
45	Dendrolobium triangulare (Retz.) Schindl.	Fabaceae	假木豆	jiǎ mù dòu	Gou mai niang	Whole plant	Boil water for oral administration	Herpes	0.03	0.17	0.10	100.00	60	Not included				/
46	Desmodium gangeticum (L.) DC.	Fabaceae	大叶山蚂蝗	dà yè shān mǎ huáng	Na teng	Root	Boil water for oral administration	Gastroenteritis	0.06	0.17	0.11	100.00	150	Not included				JX0028
47	Desmodium sequax Wall.	Fabaceae	长波叶山蚂蝗	cháng bō yè shān mǎ huáng	/	Whole plant	Mash and apply externally; Boil water for oral administration	Bruises; Stop bleeding; Nephritis	0.07	0.50	0.28	72.73	165	Not included				/
48	Desmodium triflora (L.) DC.	Fabaceae	三点金	sān diǎn jīn	Cang ying ye	Whole plant	Boil water for oral administration	Gastroenteritis; Relieve pain; Bruises	0.05	0.50	0.28	62.50	120	Not included				JX0047
49	Dicliptera chinensis (L.) Juss.	Acanthaceae	狗肝菜	gǒu gān cài	Zhuang jie	Whole plant	Boil water for oral administration	Hepatitis; Promote urination	0.24	0.33	0.29	73.68	570	Chinese PharmacopeiaI (1977) P369	Whole plant	Clear heat and relieve toxicity; Cool the blood; Promote saliva production		JX0045
50	Drymaria cordata (Linnaeus) Willdenow ex Schultes	Caryophyllaceae	荷莲豆草	hé lián dòu cǎo	Pia nong nang	Whole plant	Boil water for oral administration	Nephritis	0.03	0.17	0.10	100.00	60	Not included				/
51	Dysphania ambrosioides (Linnaeus) Mosyakin & Clemants	Amaranthaceae	土荆芥	tǔ jīng jiè	Pai hou you	Leaf	Mash and apply externally	Relieve itching	0.06	0.17	0.11	100.00	135	Not included			1	JX0002
52	Eclipta prostrata (L.) L.	Asteraceae	鳢肠	lǐ cháng	Han lian cao	Whole plant	Boil water for oral administration; Boil water for washing	Nephritis; Cystitis; Black hair	0.13	0.50	0.32	80.95	315	Not included			4	JX0008
53	Elephantopus scaber L.	Asteraceae	地胆草	dì dǎn cǎo	Hong ting	Whole plant	Boil water for oral administration	Cold; Cough relief; Cool down	0.08	0.33	0.21	69.23	195	Chinese PharmacopeiaI (1977) P202	Whole plant	Clear heat and relieve toxicity; Cool the blood		JX0029
54	Eleusine indica (L.) Gaertn.	Poaceae	牛筋草	niú jīn cǎo	Nia guān tǔn	Whole plant	Boil water for oral administration; Boil water for washing; Mash and apply externally	Nourishes the kidneys; Promote urination; Nephritis; Reduce fever; Bruises	0.13	0.83	0.48	71.43	315	Not included			7	JX0111
55	Elsholtzia kachinensis Prain	Lamiaceae	水香薷	shuǐ xiāng rú	/	Aerial part	Mash and apply externally	Relieve exterior syndrome; Dehumidification	0.08	0.33	0.20	66.67	180	Not included				JX0027
56	Emilia sonchifolia (L.) DC.	Asteraceae	一点红	yī diǎn hóng	Hong bei ye	Whole plant	Boil water for oral administration	Cough relief	0.03	0.17	0.10	100.00	75	Chinese PharmacopeiaI (1977) P1	Whole plant	Clear heat and relieve toxicity; anti-inflammatory; Promote urination		JX0048
57	Equisetum diffusum D. Don	Equisetaceae	披散木贼	pī sàn mù zéi	Guo hiao	Whole plant	Boil water for oral administration	Promote urination	0.13	0.17	0.15	100.00	315	Not included				JX0106
58	Equisetum hyemale L.	Equisetaceae	木贼	mù zéi	Guo hiao	Whole plant	Boil water for oral administration	Reduce fever; Anti-inflammatory; Hepatitis; Rheumatism	0.14	0.67	0.40	63.64	330	Chinese PharmacopeiaI (2020) P64	Aerial part	Disperse wind-heat; Clear Vision and Remove Cloudiness		JX0129
59	Eremochloa ciliaris (L.) Merr.	Poaceae	蜈蚣草	wú gōng cǎo	Qi zhi cang	Leaf	Boil water for oral administration	Stop diarrhea	0.06	0.17	0.11	100.00	150	Not included				JX0009
60	Erigeron bonariensis L.	Asteraceae	香丝草	xiāng sī cǎo	Ye tang hao	Whole plant	Mash and apply externally	Reduce swelling	0.04	0.17	0.10	100.00	90	Not included			2	JX0147
61	Erigeron canadensis L.	Asteraceae	小蓬草	xiǎo péng cǎo	Bā gēn teì/pā teǐ	Whole plant	Boil water for oral administration; Mash and apply externally	Bone hyperplasia	0.04	0.17	0.10	100.00	90	Not included				JX0157
62	Eryngium foetidum L.	Apiaceae	刺芹	cì qín	Fà gūo	Whole plant	Stew	Reduce swelling	0.05	0.17	0.11	100.00	120	Not included				JX0017
63	Eulaliopsis binata (Retz.) C. E. Hubb.	Poaceae	拟金茅	nǐ jīn máo	Long xu cao	Whole plant	Boil water for oral administration	Gastroenteritis	0.04	0.17	0.10	100.00	90	Not included				JX0011
64	Euphorbia esula L.	Euphorbiaceae	乳浆大戟	rǔ jiāng dà jǐ	Yà dōng dèng	Whole plant	Mash and apply externally; Boil water for oral administration	Relieve pain; Bruises; Gastroenteritis	0.08	0.50	0.29	53.85	195	Not included			7	JX0025
65	Fagopyrum dibotrys (D. Don) Hara	Fagopyrum	金荞麦	jīn qiáo mài	Mi wa fa	Root tuber	Take it internally with wine	Internal injury	0.05	0.17	0.11	100.00	120	Chinese PharmacopeiaI (2020) P228	Rhizome	Clear heat and relieve toxicity; Drain pus and remove blood stasis		JX0076
66	Ficus sarmentosa Buch.-Ham. ex J. E. Sm.	Moraceae	匍茎榕	pú jīng róng	nei long	Stem; Leaf	Mash and apply externally; Boil water for oral administration; Boil water for washing	Bone setting; Internal injury; Skin disease	0.11	0.50	0.30	64.71	255	Not included				JX0014
67	Ficus tikoua Bur.	Moraceae	地果	dì guǒ	Ma dian	Young leaf	Take directly orally	Rheumatism; Stop diarrhea; Stop bleeding	0.11	0.50	0.30	76.47	255	Not included				/
68	Fimbristylis dichotoma (L.) Vahl	Cyperaceae	两歧飘拂草	liǎng qí piāo fú cǎo	Ya sun	Whole plant	Boil water for oral administration	Relieve pain; Clear heat and relieve toxicity	0.11	0.33	0.22	58.82	255	Not included				/
69	Flueggea virosa (Roxb. ex Willd.) Voigt	Phyllanthaceae	白饭树	bái fàn shù	Ma ding	Young leaf	Boil water for oral administration	Dysentery	0.03	0.17	0.10	100.00	75	Not included				/
70	Gentiana (Tourn.) L.	Gentianaceae	龙胆SP	lóng dǎn	Ji gu yo	Whole plant	Take it internally with wine; Soak in wine and wash	Internal injury; Rheumatism	0.05	0.33	0.19	100.00	120	Not included			7	JX0092
71	Glechoma longituba (Nakai) Kupr.	Lamiaceae	活血丹	huó xuè dān	Pai jiang	Aerial part	Boil water for oral administration	Lose weight; Nourish the body	0.05	0.33	0.19	75.00	120	Not included				JX0055
72	Glochidion eriocarpum Champ. ex Benth.	Phyllanthaceae	毛果算盘子	máo guǒ suàn pǎn zǐ	Mei pei muan	Root	Make soup	Hepatitis	0.08	0.17	0.12	100.00	180	Not included				JX0100
73	Gonostegia hirta (Bl.) Miq.	Urticaceae	糯米团	nuò mǐ tuán	Guo tong duo	Whole plant	Mash and apply externally; Boil water for oral administration	Bruises; Reduce fever; Promote urination; Nephritis	0.13	0.67	0.40	80.95	315	Not included				JX0108
74	Goodyera procera (Ker.-Gawl.) Hook.	Orchidaceae	高斑叶兰	gāo bān yè lán	Kai kou gei	Whole plant	Boil water for oral administration; Stew	Nourish the body; Aphrodisiac	0.06	0.33	0.19	77.78	135	Not included				JX0043
75	Hedyotis diffusa Willd.	Rubiaceae	白花蛇舌草	bái huā shé shé cǎo	Guo bia han	Whole plant	Boil water for oral administration	Anti-cancer; Pancreatitis	0.16	0.33	0.24	80.00	375	Not included				JX0001
76	Hedyotis uncinella Hook. et Arn.	Rubiaceae	长节耳草	cháng jié ěr cǎo	Hei tou cao	Whole plant	Mash and apply externally	Stop bleeding	0.04	0.17	0.11	100.00	105	Not included				JX0102
77	Houttuynia cordata Thunb.	Saururaceae	蕺菜	jí cài	Guo sha dou	Whole plant	Boil water for oral administration; Stir-fry	Clear heat and relieve toxicity; Uremia	0.08	0.33	0.21	76.92	195	Not included				JX0063
78	Humulus scandens (Lour.) Merr.	Cannabaceae	葎草	lǜ cǎo	Nia gai lv	Whole plant	Boil water for oral administration; Boil water for washing	Lower blood pressure; Dysentery; Skin disease	0.11	0.50	0.31	61.11	270	Not included			7	JX0013
79	Hylodesmum podocarpum subsp. oxyphyllum (Candolle) H. Ohashi & R. R. Mill	Fabaceae	尖叶长柄山蚂蝗	jiān yè cháng bǐng shān mǎ huáng	Lung zong cao	Root	Mash and apply externally	Suppuration; Bone setting	0.07	0.33	0.20	81.82	165	Not included				JX0068
80	Impatiens chinensis L.	Balsaminaceae	华凤仙	huá fèng xiān	Yà dōng mìe	Whole plant	Boil water for washing	Gynecological diseases	0.04	0.17	0.11	100.00	105	Not included				JX0037
81	Imperata cylindrica (L.) Beauv.	Poaceae	白茅	bái máo	Nia ya	Root	Boil water for oral administration	Nephritis; Hepatitis; Rheumatism; Reduce swelling; Kidney stones	0.11	0.83	0.47	64.71	255	Chinese PharmacopeiaI (2020) P111	Rhizome	Cool the blood and stop bleeding; Clear heat; Promote urination		JX0153
82	Ipomoea nil (Linnaeus) Roth	Convolvulaceae	牵牛	qiān niú	Deng ta	Whole plant	Boil water for oral administration; Boil water for washing	Bone setting; Internal injury; Skin disease	0.09	0.50	0.30	73.33	225	Not included			2	JX0112
83	Juncus setchuensis Buchen. ex Diels	Juncaceae	野灯芯草	yě dēng xīn cǎo	Pai dang chao	Whole plant	Mash and apply externally	Suppuration	0.03	0.33	0.18	100.00	75	Not included				JX0059
84	Justicia gendarussa N. L. Burman	Acanthaceae	小驳骨	xiǎo bó gǔ	Jie gu cao	Stem; Leaf	Mash and apply externally	Bone setting	0.03	0.17	0.10	100.00	60	Chinese PharmacopeiaI (2020) P48	Aerial part	Dispel blood stasis and relieve pain; Bone setting	5	JX0007
85	Justicia ventricosa Wallich ex Hooker	Acanthaceae	黑叶小驳骨	hēi yè xiǎo bó gǔ	Ke jie ge	Whole plant	Stew	Nephritis	0.03	0.17	0.10	100.00	60	Not included				JX0044
86	Kummerowia striata (Thunb.) Schindl.	Fabaceae	鸡眼草	rén zì cǎo	Hong hua cao	Whole plant	Boil water for oral administration	Uremia	0.04	0.17	0.10	100.00	90	Not included				JX0062
87	Lantana camara L.	Verbenaceae	马缨丹	mǎ yīng dān	Wa jin dao	Root	Boil water for oral administration	Hepatitis	0.04	0.17	0.10	100.00	90	Not included			1	JX0064
88	Leersia sayanuka Ohwi	Poaceae	秕壳草	bǐ ké cǎo	Ar liang bo	Leaf	Chew and hold in mouth	Oral ulcers	0.05	0.17	0.11	100.00	120	Not included				JX0005
89	Lemna minor L.	Araceae	浮萍	fú píng	Kiao	Whole plant	Mash and apply externally	Anti-inflammatory	0.04	0.17	0.10	100.00	90	Chinese PharmacopeiaI (2020) P308	Whole plant	Disperse wind-heat; Rash; Promote urination		JX0040
90	Lespedeza cuneata (Dum.-Cours.) G. Don	Fabaceae	截叶铁扫帚	jié yè tiě sào zhǒu	Mai tang	Whole plant	Boil water for oral administration	Hepatitis; Nephritis; Promote urination	0.09	0.50	0.29	64.29	210	Not included				JX0072
91	Lindernia ruellioides (Colsm.) Pennell	Linderniaceae	旱田草	hàn tián cǎo	Guo chang ban	Whole plant	Boil water for oral administration	Hepatitis; Oral ulcers; Infant malnutrition	0.11	0.50	0.31	38.89	270	Not included				JX0031
92	Ludwigia octovalvis (Jacq.) Raven	Onagraceae	毛草龙	máo cǎo lóng	Fang	Root	Boil water for oral administration	Hepatitis	0.03	0.17	0.10	100.00	60	Not included			7	JX0124
93	Ludwigia prostrata Roxb.	Onagraceae	丁香蓼	dīng xiāng liǎo	Pai pei n	Aerial part	Boil water for oral administration	Oral ulcers	0.08	0.17	0.12	100.00	195	Not included				JX0135
94	Lygodium microphyllum (Cavanilles) R. Brown	Lygodiaceae	小叶海金沙	xiǎo yè hǎi jīn shā	An wai	Whole plant	Mash and apply externally	Bone setting	0.04	0.17	0.11	100.00	105	Not included				JX0104
95	Maesa perlarius (Lour.) Merr.	Primulaceae	鲫鱼胆	jì yú dǎn	Pei weí	Young leaf	Boil water for oral administration	Clear heat and relieve toxicity	0.04	0.17	0.10	100.00	90	Not included				JX0136
96	Mahonia fortunei (Lindl.) Fedde	Berberidaceae	十大功劳	shí dà gōng láo	Huang lian	Stem	Boil water for oral administration	Hepatitis; Tuberculosis	0.05	0.33	0.19	75.00	120	Not included				JX0125
97	Malvastrum coromandelianum (L.) Gurcke	Malvaceae	赛葵	sài kuí	Huang hua	Whole plant	Mash and apply externally	Bruises	0.04	0.17	0.11	100.00	105	Not included			2	JX0117
98	Melastoma malabathricum Linnaeus	Melastomataceae	野牡丹	yě mǔ dān	Ma leng	Aerial part	Boil water for oral administration	Stop bleeding	0.06	0.17	0.11	100.00	135	Not included				JX0143
99	Monochoria vaginalis (Burm. F.) Presl ex Kunth	Pontederiaceae	鸭舌草	yā shé cǎo	Pai neng	Whole plant	Mash and apply externally	Suppuration	0.06	0.33	0.20	100.00	150	Not included				JX0053
100	Morus australis Poir.	Moraceae	鸡桑	jī sāng	Guo men/pia men	Fruit; Stem; Leaf	Boil water for oral administration; Boil water for washing	Nourishes the kidneys; Cough relief; Rheumatism; Cosmetic	0.15	0.67	0.41	62.50	360	Not included				JX0148
101	Mosla scabra (Thunb.) C. Y. Wu et H. W. Li	Lamiaceae	石荠苎	shí jì zhù	Ye bo he	Whole plant	Boil water for oral administration	Lower blood pressure; Cold	0.08	0.33	0.20	58.33	180	Not included				JX0132
102	Nephrolepis cordifolia (Linnaeus) C. Presl	Nephrolepidaceae	肾蕨	shèn jué	Hiu sai	Tuber	Boil water for oral administration	Clear heat and relieve toxicity; Nephritis	0.05	0.33	0.19	62.50	120	Not included				JX0119
103	Neyraudia reynaudiana (kunth.) Keng	Poaceae	类芦	lèi lú	Gōng pèi	Aerial part	Boil water for oral administration	Cold	0.03	0.17	0.10	100.00	60	Not included				JX0158
104	Odontosoria chusana (L.) Ching	Lindsaeaceae	乌蕨	wū jué	Tie jue	Whole plant	Boil water for oral administration	Clear heat and relieve toxicity	0.05	0.17	0.11	100.00	120	Not included				JX0149
105	Osbeckia stellata Ham. ex D. Don: C. B. Clarke	Melastomataceae	星毛金锦香	xīng máo jīn jǐn xiāng	Abu da shi	Whole plant	Boil water for oral administration	Anti-cancer	0.03	0.17	0.10	100.00	60	Not included				JX0022
106	Oxalis corniculata L.	Oxalidaceae	酢浆草	cù jiāng cǎo	Gen fang ga	Whole plant	Boil water for oral administration; Take it internally with wine	Promote urination; Anti-inflammatory; Stop bleeding	0.22	0.50	0.36	74.29	525	Not included			7	/
107	Oxalis corymbosa DC.	Oxalidaceae	红花酢浆草	hóng huā cù jiāng cǎo	Suan ga	Whole plant	Take directly orally; Mash and apply externally	Anti-inflammatory; Relieve pain	0.09	0.33	0.21	73.33	225	Not included			4	/
108	Oxyspora paniculata (D. Don) DC.	Melastomataceae	尖子木	jiān zǐ mù	Man nan	Leaf	Mash and apply externally	Bone setting	0.04	0.17	0.10	100.00	90	Not included				/
109	Paspalum distichum Linnaeus	Poaceae	双穗雀稗	shuāng suì què bài	Guo wang	Whole plant	Boil water for oral administration	Lower blood pressure; Cold	0.07	0.33	0.20	63.64	165	Not included			7	JX0019
110	Perilla frutescens var. purpurascens (Hayata) H. W. Li	Lamiaceae	野生紫苏	yě shēng zǐ sū	Gi fei	Leaf	Boil water for oral administration	Cough relief	0.05	0.17	0.11	100.00	120	Not included			7	JX0066
111	Perilla frutescens (L.) Britt.	Lamiaceae	紫苏	zǐ sū	Zi su	Aerial part	Boil water for oral administration	Cough relief	0.04	0.17	0.10	100.00	90	Chinese PharmacopeiaI (2020) P353-354	Fruit、Leaf、Stem	Fruit: Relieve Qi Stagnation and Dissolve Phlegm; Relieve coughing and ease wheezing; Moistens the intestines and relieves constipation. Leaf: Disperse cold and release the exterior; Promote Qi circulation and harmonize the stomach. Stem: Regulate Qi and Relieve Stomach Distension; Relieve pain; Pregnancy preservation	7	/
112	Phragmites australis (Cav.) Trin. ex Steud.	Poaceae	芦苇	lú wěi	Guo M	Root	Boil water for oral administration	Rheumatism; Reduce swelling; Kidney stones	0.09	0.50	0.30	66.67	225	Not included			7	/
113	Phryma leptostachya subsp. asiatica (Hara)Kitamura	Phrymaceae	透骨草	tòu gǔ cǎo	Nian ren cao	Whole plant	Boil water for oral administration	Clear heat and relieve toxicity	0.05	0.17	0.11	100.00	120	Not included				JX0127
114	Phyla nodiflora (L.) E. L. Greene	Verbenaceae	过江藤	guò jiāng téng	Gei bia	Whole plant	Boil water for oral administration	Clear heat and relieve toxicity	0.04	0.17	0.10	100.00	90	Not included				/
115	Phyllanthus urinaria L.	Phyllanthaceae	叶下珠	yè xià zhū	ma gan	Whole plant	Boil water for oral administration	Stop diarrhea	0.09	0.17	0.13	100.00	225	Not included				JX0065
116	Phyllanthus niruri L.	Phyllanthaceae	珠子草	zhū zǐ cǎo	Yā mēn mìe	Whole plant	Feed	Veterinary drug	0.03	0.17	0.10	100.00	75	Not included				JX0054
117	Phynatosorus cuspidatus (D. Don) Pichi Sermolli	Polypodiaceae	光亮瘤蕨	guāng liàng liú jué	Nia bu niao	Whole plant	Boil water for oral administration	Infant malnutrition	0.03	0.17	0.10	100.00	75	Not included				JX0016
118	Pilea microphylla (L.) Liebm.	Urticaceae	小叶冷水花	xiǎo yè lěng shuǐ huā	Bo li cao	Whole plant	Mash and apply externally	Suppuration	0.04	0.17	0.11	100.00	105	Not included			4	JX0101
119	Plantago asiatica L.	Plantaginaceae	车前	chē qián	Qíu mā	Whole plant	Boil water for oral administration	Hepatitis; Anti-inflammatory/Promote urination; Urinary tract stones	0.14	0.67	0.40	63.64	330	Chinese PharmacopeiaI (2020) P69-70	Seed; Whole plant	Seed: Clear heat; Diuretic and urinary tract-clearing; Drain dampness and stop diarrhea; Brighten the eyes; Expectorant. Whole plant: Clear heat and relieve toxicity; Diuretic and urinary tract-clearing; Expectorant; Cool the blood.	7	JX0133
120	Pogonatherum paniceum (Lam.) Hack.	Poaceae	金发草	jīn fā cǎo	Sha kou min	Flower	Mash and apply externally	Stop bleeding	0.04	0.17	0.11	100.00	105	Not included				JX0075
121	Polygala chinensis Linnaeus	Polygalaceae	华南远志	huá nán yuǎn zhì	Gan lie lu	Whole plant	Mash and apply externally	Bone setting	0.03	0.17	0.10	100.00	60	Not included				/
122	Polygonum capitatum Buch.-Ham. ex D. Don Prodr	Polygonaceae	头花蓼	tóu huā liǎo	Man di hong	Whole plant	Mash and apply externally	Bruises	0.06	0.17	0.11	100.00	135	Not included				JX0095
123	Polygonum hydropiper L.	Polygonaceae	水蓼	shuǐ liǎo	Guo liu	Whole plant	Boil water for oral administration	Hepatitis; Lower blood pressure; Reduce fever	0.12	0.50	0.31	100.00	285	Not included				JX0134
124	Polygonum longisetum De Br.	Polygonaceae	长鬃蓼	cháng zōng liǎo	Guo liu	Whole plant	Boil water for washing	Relieve exterior syndrome	0.03	0.17	0.10	100.00	60	Not included				JX0105
125	Polygonum longisetum var. rotundatum A.J.Li	Polygonaceae	圆基长鬃蓼	yuán jī cháng zōng liǎo	Guo liu	Whole plant	Boil water for washing	Black hair	0.05	0.17	0.11	100.00	120	Not included				JX0049
126	Polygonum perfoliatum L.	Polygonaceae	杠板归	gāng bǎn guī	Guo pie yuan	Whole plant	Boil water for washing	Eczema	0.16	0.17	0.16	100.00	390	Chinese PharmacopeiaI (2020) P173	Aerial part	Clear heat and relieve toxicity; Promote diuresis and reduce swelling; Cough relief		JX0041
127	Polygonum thunbergii Sieb. et Zucc.	Polygonaceae	戟叶蓼	jǐ yè liǎo	Guo liu	Young leaf	Make soup	Stomachic	0.06	0.17	0.11	100.00	150	Not included				JX0010
128	Polygonum viscosum Buch.-Ham. ex D. Don	Polygonaceae	香蓼	xiāng liǎo	Pā pī	Leaf	Mash and apply externally	Stop bleeding	0.04	0.17	0.10	100.00	90	Not included				JX0015
129	Prunella vulgaris L.	Lamiaceae	夏枯草	xià kū cǎo	Da tou hua	Whole plant	Boil water for oral administration	Activate blood circulation and remove blood stasis; Cold; Stop bleeding	0.23	0.67	0.45	100.00	540	Chinese PharmacopeiaI (2020) P292	Ear of plant	Clear liver heat; Brighten the eyes; Dissolve nodules and reduce swelling	7	JX0156
130	Pteris multifida Poir.	Pteridaceae	井栏边草	jǐng lán biān cǎo	Shan ji wei	Whole plant	Boil water for oral administration	Stop diarrhea	0.04	0.17	0.11	100.00	105	Not included				JX0012
131	Ragrostis unioloides (Retz.) Nees ex Steud.	Poaceae	牛虱草	niú shī cǎo	Niu shi zi	Whole plant	Boil water for oral administration; Boil water for washing	Anti-inflammatory; Hepatitis; Reduce fever; Rheumatism	0.13	0.67	0.40	42.86	315	Not included				JX0052/JX0097
132	Ranunculus chinensis Bunge	Ranunculaceae	茴茴蒜	huí huí suàn	Huang hua	Whole plant	Mash and apply externally	Conjunctivitis	0.03	0.17	0.10	100.00	60	Not included				JX0073
133	Rauvolfia verticillata (Lour.) Baill.	Apocynaceae	萝芙木	luó fú mù	Shan ma ti	Stem	Boil water for oral administration	Lower blood pressure	0.08	0.17	0.12	100.00	195	Not included				/
134	Rhaphidophora hongkongensis Schott	Araceae	狮子尾	shī zǐ wěi	Bai zu cao	Whole plant	Boil water for washing	Relaxation of tendons and joints	0.04	0.17	0.11	100.00	105	Not included				JX0121
135	Rohdea japonica (Thunb.) Roth	sparagaceae	万年青	wàn nián qīng	Kai kou jian	Whole plant	Boil water for oral administration	Hepatitis	0.03	0.17	0.10	100.00	60	Not included				/
136	Rotala indica (Willd.) Koehne	Lythraceae	节节菜	jié jié cài	Pai lian meng	Whole plant	Boil water for oral administration	Anti-cancer	0.03	0.17	0.10	100.00	60	Not included			7	JX0070
137	Sedum sarmentosum Bunge	Crassulaceae	垂盆草	chuí pén cǎo	Gou ya cao	Whole plant	Boil water for oral administration	Liver tuberculosis	0.08	0.17	0.12	100.00	180	Chinese PharmacopeiaI (2020) P223	Whole plant	Drain dampness and eliminate jaundice; Clear heat and relieve toxicity		/
138	Selaginella delicatula (Desv.) Alston	Selaginellaceae	薄叶卷柏	báo yè juǎn bǎi	Juan bai	Leaf	Mash and apply externally	Anti-inflammatory; Relieve pain	0.06	0.17	0.11	100.00	150	Not included				JX0035/JX0090
139	Selaginella tamariscina (P. Beauv.) Spring	Selaginellaceae	卷柏	juǎn bǎi	Huan hun cao	Aerial part	Boil water for oral administration	Lower blood pressure	0.04	0.17	0.10	100.00	90	Chinese PharmacopeiaI (2020) P237	Whole plant	Promote blood circulation and regulate menstruation		JX0032
140	Selaginella moellendorffii Hieron.	Selaginellaceae	江南卷柏	jiāng nán juǎn bǎi	Dā pù téng	Leaf	Boil water for oral administration	Anti-cancer	0.03	0.17	0.10	100.00	60	Not included				/
141	Senna tora (Linnaeus) Roxburgh	Fabaceae	决明	jué míng	Guo mie	Flower	Boil water for oral administration	Lower blood pressure	0.04	0.17	0.10	100.00	90	Not included			7	JX0078
142	Sesbania cannabina (Retz.) Poir.	Fabaceae	田菁	tián jīng	Guo nan xin da	Leaf	Mash and apply externally	Relaxation of tendons and joints; Activate blood circulation and remove blood stasis	0.05	0.33	0.19	75.00	120	Not included			2	JX0087
143	Sida szechuensis Matsuda	Malvaceae	拔毒散	bá dú sàn	Guo gong	Whole plant	Boil water for oral administration; Mash and apply externally	Suppuration; Clear heat and relieve toxicity; Promote urination; Stop bleeding; Urinary tract infection; Traumatic infection	0.13	1.00	0.56	65.00	300	Not included			7	JX0018
144	Sigesbeckia pubescens (Makino) Makino	Asteraceae	腺梗豨莶	xiàn gěng xī xiān	Wo bi ha	Whole plant	Boil water for oral administration	Reduce swelling	0.03	0.17	0.10	100.00	60	Not included				JX0021
145	Solanum americanum Miller	Solanaceae	少花龙葵	shǎo huā lóng kuí	Bai hua cai	Stem; Leaf	Boil water for oral administration	Stop diarrhea; Promote urination; Clear heat and relieve toxicity	0.08	0.50	0.29	58.33	180	Not included			7	JX0033
146	Sonchus brachyotus DC.	Asteraceae	长裂苦苣菜	cháng liè kǔ jù cài	Pai hen ha	Whole plant	Boil water for oral administration; Mash and apply externally	Cold; Stop diarrhea; Acne	0.09	0.50	0.30	73.33	225	Not included			7	JX0109
147	Sonchus uliginosus M. B.	Asteraceae	短裂苦苣菜	duǎn liè kǔ jù cài	/	Whole plant	Mash and apply externally	Traumatic infection; Suppuration	0.04	0.33	0.19	71.43	105	Not included				JX0056
148	Striga asiatica (L.) O. Kuntze	Orobanchaceae	独脚金	dú jiǎo jīn	Nuo han	Whole plant	Steam	Infant malnutrition; Hepatitis; Pneumonia	0.13	0.50	0.32	66.67	315	Not included			7	JX0023
149	Taraxacum mongolicum Hand.-Mazz.	Asteraceae	蒲公英	pú gōng yīng	Pai hen ha	Whole plant	Boil water for oral administration	Clear heat and relieve toxicity	0.16	0.17	0.16	100.00	375	Chinese PharmacopeiaI (2020) P367	Whole plant	Clear heat and relieve toxicity; Reduce swelling and disperse nodules; Diuretic and urinary tract-clearing		JX0131
150	Urena procumbens L.	Malvaceae	梵天花	fàn tiān huā	Xiao tao hua	Leaf	Mash and apply externally	Suppuration	0.03	0.17	0.10	100.00	60	Not included				JX0038
151	Verbena officinalis L.	Verbenaceae	马鞭草	mǎ biān cǎo	Nia tang an	Whole plant	Boil water for oral administration	Reduce fever	0.18	0.17	0.17	100.00	435	Chinese PharmacopeiaI (2020) P53	Aerial part	Promote blood circulation and disperse blood stasis; Relieve toxicity; Diuretic; Antimalarial	7	JX0096
152	Viola arcuata Blume	Violaceae	如意草	rú yì cǎo	Lei gei yi	Root	Stew	Tonify qi	0.03	0.17	0.10	100.00	60	Not included				JX0071
153	Vitex negundo L.	Lamiaceae	黄荆	huáng jīng	Mei qing jiao	Stem; Leaf	Boil water for oral administration; Boil water for washing	Nephritis; Rheumatism	0.16	0.33	0.24	84.00	375	Not included				JX0051
154	Youngia japonica (L.) DC.	Asteraceae	黄鹌菜	huáng ān cài	Pai leng ten	Whole plant	Boil water for oral administration	Clear heat and relieve toxicity	0.09	0.17	0.13	100.00	210	Not included				JX0050

Plant parts utilized and methods of use

Regarding the plant parts utilized in medicinal weeds, the whole plant is the most commonly used part, involving 95 species, accounting for 61.7% of the total species. The leaves are the second most used part, with 29 species, making up 18.8%. Roots/rhizomes are the third most utilized, with 14 species, accounting for 9.1%. Other utilized parts include stems/tubers (12 species), aerial parts (11 species), flowers (4 species), fruits (1 species), and buds (1 species), with the distribution of utilization across these parts shown in Fig. 4.

In terms of methods of use, boil water for oral administration is the primary form, involving 97 species, accounting for 63.0%, mainly used for treating internal diseases such as hepatitis and hypertension. The second most common method is mashing and apply externally, involving 47 species (30.5%), primarily used for treating bleeding, trauma, and sprains. Soak in wine and wash involves 19 species (12.3%), mainly used for treating itching and skin diseases (Fig. 5). Additionally, a small number of species are used in Stewing (6 species) and stir-fry (4 species), reflecting the local tradition of integrating food and medicine.

Fig. 4

Plant part(s) used for ethnomedicine in rice paddy field ecosystem of Jingxi

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Fig. 5

Utilization methods of rice field weeds in Jingxi

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Analysis of medicinal potential of weeds and consensus on traditional knowledge

The results of this study show that 154 species of medicinal weeds can be used to treat up to 67 diseases (see Table 3). These species are not only core resources of the local traditional healthcare system but also serve as important carriers of biocultural diversity, playing an irreplaceable role in maintaining the health of the local community.

Index of informant consensus (FIC): reflecting the local consensus on disease-species associations

Among the 67 recorded diseases, 5 diseases have an Information Consistency Index (FIC) ≥ 0.93, indicating that there is a high level of local consensus on the plant treatments for these diseases (Tables 3 and 4):

(1) Pancreatitis (FIC = 0.94): mainly treated with Bidens pilosa (RFCs = 0.21) and Hedyotis diffusa (RFCs = 0.16);

(2) Tonsillitis (FIC = 0.94): core species include Ageratum houstonianum (RFCs = 0.09) and Asarum caudigerum (RFCs = 0.03);

(3) Black hair (FIC = 0.94): relies on Eclipta prostrata (RFCs = 0.13) and Polygonum longisetum var. rotundatum (RFCs = 0.05);

(4) Activate blood circulation and remove blood stasis (FIC = 0.93): involves 4 species, with Prunella vulgaris (RFCs = 0.23) and Alternanthera philoxeroides (RFCs = 0.16) as the main species;

(5) Relieve itching (FIC = 0.93): includes 3 species, with Artemisia indica (RFCs = 0.10) and Dysphania ambrosioides (RFCs = 0.06) as representatives.

Table 3

Informant consensus factor (FIC) by ailment categories

SN	Ailment category	N_t(Species)	N_ur(Use citations)	FIC
1	Tonsillitis	2	19	0.94
2	Pancreatitis	2	17	0.94
3	Black hair	2	17	0.94
4	Activate blood circulation and remove blood stasis	4	42	0.93
5	Relieve itching	3	28	0.93
6	Lower blood pressure	9	106	0.92
7	Reduce fever	6	60	0.92
8	Oral ulcers	4	33	0.91
9	Clear heat and relieve toxicity	13	122	0.90
10	Rheumatism	11	99	0.90
11	Promote urination	10	89	0.90
12	Stop diarrhea	9	78	0.90
13	Relieve pain	8	73	0.90
14	Gastroenteritis	5	42	0.90
15	Stop bleeding	14	115	0.89
16	Nourishes the kidneys	2	10	0.89
17	Uremia	2	10	0.89
18	Bone setting	10	73	0.88
19	Infant malnutrition	4	26	0.88
20	Suppuration	3	17	0.88
21	Nourish the body	2	9	0.88
22	Cough relief	6	37	0.86
23	Acne	6	36	0.86
24	Reduce swelling	5	29	0.86
25	Tonify qi	2	8	0.86
26	Tuberculosis	2	8	0.86
27	Relieve exterior syndrome	2	8	0.86
28	Kidney stones	2	8	0.86
29	Hepatitis	19	119	0.85
30	Cold	10	58	0.84
31	Bruises	10	57	0.84
32	Anti-inflammatory	9	51	0.84
33	Internal injury	5	24	0.83
34	Dysentery	2	7	0.83
35	Nephritis	10	52	0.82
36	Skin disease	4	18	0.82
37	Relaxation of tendons and joints	4	18	0.82
38	Anti-cancer	6	24	0.78
39	Urinary tract infection	2	4	0.67
40	Dispel cold	1	25	-
41	Scald	1	22	-
42	Liver tuberculosis	1	12	-
43	Urinary tract stones	1	10	-
44	Stomachic	1	10	-
45	Cool down	1	9	-
46	Dehumidification	1	9	-
47	Sleep aid	1	8	-
48	Pull out pus	1	7	-
49	Hemorrhoid	1	7	-
50	Gynecological diseases	1	7	-
51	Acquired immunodeficiency syndrome	1	6	-
52	Calming the nerves	1	6	-
53	Pneumonia	1	6	-
54	Cystitis	1	6	-
55	Bone hyperplasia	1	6	-
56	Cosmetic	1	6	-
57	Veterinary drug	1	5	-
58	Relieve fatigue	1	4	-
59	Gonorrhea	1	4	-
60	Coronary heart disease	1	4	-
61	Herpes	1	4	-
62	Lose weight	1	4	-
63	Aphrodisiac	1	4	-
64	Conjunctivitis	1	4	-
65	Traumatic infection	1	4	-
66	Eczema	1	4	-
67	Gastritis	1	4	-

Table 4

Relative frequency of citation of species in the five high-FIC ailment categories

Relative Frequency of Citation [RFCs (max)]
Pancreatitis		Tonsillitis		Black hair		Activate blood circulation and remove blood stasis		Relieve itching
Bidens pilosa L.	0.21	Ageratum houstonianum Miller	0.09	Eclipta prostrata (L.) L.	0.13	Carpesium abrotanoides L.	0.07	Ajuga ciliata Bunge	0.04
Hedyotis diffusa Willd.	0.16	Asarum caudigerum Hance	0.03	Polygonum longisetum var. rotundatum A.J.Li	0.05	Sesbania cannabina (Retz.) Poir.	0.05	Artemisia indica Willd.	0.10
						Prunella vulgaris L.	0.23	Dysphania ambrosioides (Linnaeus) Mosyakin & Clemants	0.06
						Alternanthera philoxeroides (Mart.) Griseb.	0.16

Relative importance (RI): quantifying the comprehensive medicinal value of species

The range of the Relative importance index (RI) is between 0.12 and 0.61. The top six species with the highest RI values and their primary medicinal effects are as follows (see Table 2):

(1) Sida szechuensis (RI = 0.61): used for six functions, including suppuration, heat-clearing and detoxifying, diuresis, hemostasis, urinary tract infections, and wound infections.

(2) Bidens pilosa (RI = 0.60): primarily used to treat five conditions: hypertension, cancer, pancreatitis, diarrhea, and skin diseases.

(3) Prunella vulgaris (RI = 0.55): known for three functions: activating blood circulation and removing blood stasis, hemostasis, and treating colds.

(4) Eleusine indica (RI = 0.54): used for kidney supplementation, diuresis, nephritis, fever reduction, and trauma injuries.

(5) Imperata cylindrica (RI = 0.52): mainly used to treat nephritis, hepatitis, rheumatism, swelling, and kidney stones.

(6) Oxalis corniculata (RI = 0.50): known for three effects: diuresis, anti-inflammatory, and hemostasis (for internal bleeding).

Fidelity level (FL): reflecting the specificity of species in treating a particular disease

The survey results show that the Fidelity level (FL) values of most weed species (98 species) reach 100% (Fig. 6), indicating that all information providers who mentioned these species unanimously recognized their efficacy in treating specific diseases. Among them, the citation frequency (FC) of 78 species is ≤ 10. Notably, in disease categories with a high Information Consistency Index (FIC ≥ 0.93), species such as Ageratum houstonianum, Asarum caudigerum, Dysphania ambrosioides, Polygonum longisetum var. rotundatum, and Prunella vulgaris have FL values of 100%, which highlights the high specificity and fidelity of these species in their therapeutic functions.

Fig. 6

The relationship between Frequency of citation (FC) and Fidelity Level (FL%)

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The medicinal potential of local weeds

A systematic comparison with the Chinese Pharmacopoeia (1977 edition and 2020 edition) showed the following results: Among the 154 medicinal weeds, 128 species (accounting for 83.1%) were not included, including invasive species such as Bidens pilosa and Ageratum houstonianum. Among the 26 species recorded in the Pharmacopoeia, 19 species (accounting for 73.1%) have traditional uses that differ from those described in the Pharmacopoeia. For example, Prunella vulgaris in the Pharmacopoeia is listed for clearing liver heat and improving vision, while locally it is traditionally used for activating blood circulation and stopping bleeding; Ajuga ciliata is recorded in the Pharmacopoeia for clearing heat and detoxifying, cooling the blood, and reducing swelling, but locally it is mainly used for relieving itching (Table 5).

Table 5

Species in the Chinese pharmacopoeia with inconsistent efficacy

Botanical Name	Local therapeutic uses	Plant part(s) used	Chinese Pharmacopeia	Pharmacopoeia efficacy
Acalypha australis	Hemorrhoid; Gastroenteritis	Aerial part	Version (1977) P480	Clear heat and relieve toxicity; Drain dampness; Stop bleeding
Ajuga ciliata	Relieve itching	Whole plant	Version (2020) P361	Clear heat and relieve toxicity; Cool the blood and reduce swelling
Aster indicus	Cough relief; Cold; Hepatitis; Clear heat and relieve toxicity; Infant malnutrition	Whole plant	Version (1977) P67	Regulate Qi; Aid digestion; Clear damp-heat
Aster tataricus	Cold; Stop diarrhea; Acne	Whole plant	Version (2020) P357	Moistens the lungs and lowers qi; Relieve phlegm and suppress cough
Chrysanthemum indicum	Lower blood pressure	Flower	Version (2020) P328	Clear heat and relieve toxicity; Clear heat and calm the liver
Curcuma longa	Bone setting	Tuber	Version (2020) P276	Promote blood circulation and regulate Qi; Regulate menstruation and stop bleeding
Cuscuta chinensis	Sleep aid	Whole plant	Version (2020) P322	Nourish the liver and kidneys; Preserve semen and reduce urination; Pregnancy preservation; Brighten the eyes; Stop diarrhea
Dendrobium nobile	Hepatitis; Tuberculosis	Fruit	Version (2020) P94	Nourish the stomach and generate fluids; Nourish yin and clear heat
Dicliptera chinensis	Hepatitis; Promote urination	Whole plant	Version (1977) P369	Clear heat and relieve toxicity; Cool the blood; Promote saliva production
Elephantopus scaber	Cough relief; Cold; Cool down	Whole plant	Version (1977) P202	Clear heat and relieve toxicity; Cool the blood
Emilia sonchifolia	Cough relief	Whole plant	Version (1977) P1	Clear heat and relieve toxicity; anti-inflammatory; Promote urination
Fagopyrum dibotrys	Internal injury	Root tuber	Version (2020) P228	Clear heat and relieve toxicity; Drain pus and remove blood stasis
Imperata cylindrica	Nephritis; Hepatitis; Rheumatism; Reduce swelling; Kidney stones	Root	Version (2020) P111	Cool the blood and stop bleeding; Clear heat; Promote urination
Lemna minor	Anti-inflammatory	Whole plant	Version (2020) P308	Disperse wind-heat; Rash; Promote urination
Polygonum perfoliatum	Eczema	Whole plant	Version (2020) P173	Clear heat and relieve toxicity; Promote diuresis and reduce swelling; Cough relief
Prunella vulgaris	Activate blood circulation and remove blood stasis; Cold; Stop bleeding	Whole plant	Version (2020) P292	Clear liver heat; Brighten the eyes; Dissolve nodules and reduce swelling
Sedum sarmentosum	Liver tuberculosis	Whole plant	Version (2020) P223	Drain dampness and eliminate jaundice; Clear heat and relieve toxicity
Selaginella tamariscina	Lower blood pressure	Aerial part	Version (2020) P237	Promote blood circulation and regulate menstruation
Verbena officinalis	Reduce fever	Whole plant	Version (2020) P53	Promote blood circulation and disperse blood stasis; Relieve toxicity; Diuretic; Antimalarial

Economic value of local weeds

The economic value of the 154 weed species investigated in this study was calculated based on their usage frequency (represented by the number of households that collected the plant, Oeₑ) and estimated price (Peₑ). Species with an economic value index (EV) ≥ 400 (see Table 1) include Dicliptera chinensis, Prunella vulgaris, Oxalis corniculata, Bidens pilosa, Chrysanthemum indicum, and Verbena officinalis. Among them, Prunella vulgaris and Bidens pilosa show high consensus in local use: Prunella vulgaris is commonly used for activating blood circulation and removing blood stasis, while Bidens pilosa is frequently used to treat tonsillitis. Additionally, the relative importance index (RI) of these species is also high (Prunella vulgaris RI = 0.55, Bidens pilosa RI = 0.60, Oxalis corniculata RI = 0.50), indicating their high overall medicinal value in the local community.

Medicinal value of invasive weeds

Among the 154 weed species recorded in this survey, 18 are alien invasive plants (see Table 1). Among them:

Level Ⅰ Malignant Invasive Species (7 species): all have clear medicinal value. For example, Bidens pilosa (RI = 0.60) is used to treat hypertension and pancreatitis (FIC = 0.94); Alternanthera philoxeroides is used for activating blood circulation and removing blood stasis (RFCs = 0.16).

Level Ⅱ Severe Invasive Species (5 species): Ageratum houstonianum is a core species for treating pancreatitis (FIC = 0.94, RFCs = 0.09); Sesbania cannabina is used for activating blood circulation and removing blood stasis (RFCs = 0.05).

The Degree of informants’ consent to ecological service (DES) score (1 = lowest agreement, 5 = highest agreement) is used to assess informants’ awareness of the ecological service functions of weeds. The average DES score of 160 respondents was 3.2 ± 0.8 (moderate to high), indicating that most people recognize the medicinal and resource value of weeds. Group difference analysis shows:

In terms of age, the DES score for the 71–80 age group (3.5 ± 0.6) was significantly higher than that of the 31–40 age group (2.8 ± 0.7, P = 0.015), reflecting a deeper understanding of the value of weeds among the older group. Field observations also showed that elderly individuals often regard weeds as a natural pharmacy, while younger individuals tend to classify them as pests.

In terms of gender, the DES scores for males (3.3 ± 0.7) and females (3.1 ± 0.9) did not show a statistically significant difference (P = 0.382) (Fig. 7a). Further analysis of gender differences in weed usage preferences revealed that females had a significantly higher preference for internal use, while males were more inclined towards external use. There were no gender differences in other usage methods (Fig. 7b).

By analyzing the preference intensity for the twelve most important functions of weed resources among different age groups (Fig. 7c), it was found that the elderly group (≥ 61 years) showed the highest preference for functions related to hepatitis, heat-clearing, detoxification, rheumatism, and nephritis. The younger group (≤ 40 years) had a higher preference for common ailments such as colds, hemostasis, and heat-clearing, but a lower preference for tonifying and strengthening the body. The middle-aged group (41–60 years) displayed a transitional preference. This result reveals the pattern of shifting health focus with age: the elderly group focuses on chronic disease prevention and health maintenance, while the younger group emphasizes acute disease treatment. This difference directly influences the application and inheritance of traditional knowledge.

Fig. 7

Analysis of degree of informants’ consent to the ecological service (DES). (a, differences in DES scores between age and gender groups; b, analysis of differences in utilization methods among age groups; c, preference intensity for main functions across different age groups.)

Bild vergrößern

Cross-regional comparative analysis

Both Jingxi and Longsheng are Zhuang ethnic settlements in Guangxi, with rice cultivation as their core livelihood and both belonging to the southwest karst landform region. Jingxi is mainly characterized by karst peak-cluster depressions, while Longsheng is renowned for its typical karst terraces. Comparative analysis of the traditional utilization of farmland weeds by the Zhuang people in the two regions reveals that both take herbaceous weeds as the main medicinal resources, with boiling for internal use and mashing for external application as the core utilization methods. This reflects the easily accessible and low-cost resource utilization logic in Zhuang traditional medicine, as well as the cultural consensus formed by the ethnic group in adapting to the rice cultivation ecology. However, there are significant differences between the two regions in the perception of the medicinal value of weed resources and their utilization methods. A total of 154 weed species in Jingxi have been recorded as having medicinal value, compared with only 21 species in Longsheng (according to our research team’s previous investigation). The species similarity coefficient of common medicinal weeds between the two regions is relatively low (S = 12.57%), and among the 11 shared weed species, there are certain differences in their traditional medicinal effects (see Table 6). This result reveals that Traditional Ecological Knowledge (TEK) may still undergo differentiation within the same ethnic group due to geographical differences.

Table 6

Detailed information on medicinal weeds commonly used in paddy fields of Jingxi and Longsheng

Botanical name	Therapeutic uses (Jingxi)	Therapeutic uses (Longsheng)
Centella asiatica	Relaxation of tendons and joints; Activate blood circulation and remove blood stasis	The leaves are used as food, either boiled in soup or stir-fried
Cayratia japonica	Hepatitis	Bone setting; Tuberculosis
Emilia sonchifolia	Cough relief	Dysentery; Furuncle
Fagopyrum dibotrys	Internal injury	Relieve sore throat; Relieve a stomachache; Treat abnormal leukorrhea
Imperata cylindrica	Nephritis; Hepatitis; Rheumatism; Reduce swelling; Kidney stones	Clear heat and relieve toxicity; Promote urination
Lygodium microphyllum	Bone setting	Rheumatism; Relieve itching
Odontosoria chusana	Clear heat and relieve toxicity	Stop bleeding
Plantago asiatica	Hepatitis; Anti-inflammatory; Promote urination; Urinary tract stones	Clear heat and relieve toxicity; Bruises
Polygonum capitatum	Bruises	Bruises; Rheumatism
Polygonum hydropiper	Hepatitis; Lower blood pressure; Reduce fever	Bruises; Dysentery
Polygonum perfoliatum	Eczema	Cough relief; Dysentery

Discussion

Through systematic ethnobotanical surveys, this study for the first time systematically clarifies the ethnomedicinal value of 154 weed species in the paddy field ecosystem of Jingxi, Guangxi, providing key evidence for analyzing the dual ecological and economic attributes of weeds and promoting the protection of traditional knowledge, and reconstructing paddy field weed management.

Rice field weeds: an underestimated medicinal resource treasure trove and the uniqueness of traditional knowledge

The traditional model of removing all weeds ignores their medicinal value. Among the 154 medicinal weed species identified in this ethnobotanical survey, 128 (83.1%) are not included in the Pharmacopoeia of the People’s Republic of China (hereinafter referred to as the Chinese Pharmacopoeia). For the 26 included species, 73.1% (19 species) show significant differences between their traditional effects and the Pharmacopoeia records. For instance, Prunella vulgaris, locally used for promoting blood circulation and removing blood stasis, is documented in the Chinese Pharmacopoeia to clear liver, dispel fire, and improve eyesight [36]. This not only confirms the core viewpoint of ethnobotany: Traditional Ecological Knowledge (TEK) is an important supplement to modern medical system, but also reveals the core value of paddy field weeds as a treasure trove of ethnic medicinal resources. The undeveloped functional potential of these species urgently requires systematic exploration [37].

Quantitative analysis further demonstrates the practical value of core resources. Sida szechuensis (RI = 0.61), a species not included in the Chinese Pharmacopoeia, is locally used for six medicinal effects including treating suppuration, clearing heat and detoxifying, and promoting urination. Its versatility in traditional medicine is enhanced by the convenience of using its entire plant and its wide distribution in field ridges and wastelands, making it a “multi-purpose” resource. This “efficacy diversity - ecological accessibility” synergy reflects the efficient resource adaptation strategy in traditional medicine [38, 39]. Bidens pilosa (RI = 0.60), a level I invasive species, is not only highly consensual in local use for treating pancreatitis (FIC = 0.94), traditionally used in South Africa to treat headaches and kidney issues [16], and traditionally used in Mexico to treat stomach diseases [40]. Modern pharmacological studies have shown that it has anti-inflammatory and hepatoprotective effects, which also provides a scientific basis for its traditional uses [15, 41].

The distribution characteristics of species with a high Information Consistency index (FIC) (such as tonsillitis and black hair problems, FIC = 0.94) suggest that a stable consensus has been formed in the local plant-based treatment schemes for specific diseases. For example, the level Ⅱ invasive species Ageratum houstonianum is highly consensual in the treatment of pancreatitis in Jingxi (FIC = 0.94). Although this effect is not recorded in the Chinese Pharmacopoeia, studies on the anti-inflammatory compounds of its close relative, Ageratum conyzoides, provide important directions for validating its medicinal activity [42]. Prunella vulgaris (RI = 0.55), locally used for promoting blood circulation and removing blood stasis (FIC = 0.93), shows a significant difference from its Chinese Pharmacopoeia record of clearing the liver and dispelling fire. Its use in folk medicine in Turkey for treating rheumatism and as a diuretic in Japan [43], combined with the observation that different medicinal parts (whole plant locally versus inflorescence in the pharmacopoeia) may be key factors in the divergence of its efficacy, offers new insights into expanding its medicinal applications. Scientific verification of these high-consensus treatments offers a route to augmenting pharmacopoeias with ethnobotanical directives, while also accelerating the drug development process [44, 45].

It is worth noting that 11 of the high-consensus species are not included in the Chinese Pharmacopoeia, which directly attests to the fact that the traditional medicinal knowledge of the Jingxi Zhuang people contains a wealth of potential functional information about species that have not yet been fully explored by modern medicine. Furthermore, by comparing with existing data on weed-based medicinal practices of the Zhuang people in Longsheng (according to our research team’s previous investigation), this study reveals that both communities have developed a medical tradition of using locally available resources, i.e., prioritizing easily collectible, high-biomass paddy weeds as medicinal resources. This practice is likely closely related to the common environmental challenges of drought and poor soil in the karst regions of Southwest China, which have prompted these ethnic groups to form shared adaptive strategies for the karst ecosystem. However, it is important to emphasize that the similarity between the medicinal plants used in the two regions is remarkably low. This significant divergence may be deeply linked to the geographical isolation characteristics of karst landforms, offering fresh perspectives for subsequent ethnobotanical research on the intricate relationship between resource distribution and cultural utilization.

The “Dual Nature” of invasive weeds: balancing ecological harm and medicinal value

Invasive plants traditionally regarded as harmful weeds that must be completely eradicated have become core resources for treating high-consensus diseases in the Zhuang communities in Jingxi, creating a striking cognitive contrast. This study recorded a total of 18 invasive plant species with clear ethnomedicinal value (including 7 Level I highly invasive species), among which Bidens pilosa and Ageratum houstonianum are widely used to treat high-consensus diseases such as pancreatitis and tonsillitis. This finding challenges the traditional perception that invasive species are inherently harmful and provides empirical support for the innovative idea of resource utilization of invasive species [46, 47].

From an ecological economics perspective, the high relative importance (RI = 0.60) of Bidens pilosa (a Level I highly invasive species) is closely related to its characteristics of large biomass and easy accessibility, which result from its strong dispersal ability. Through regular collection and utilization by local communities, natural control pressure on its population is formed, providing a typical local case of cultural ecological engineering for the non-chemical control of invasive species [48]. Compared with the conclusion proposed by Blackshaw (2000) that simple weeding is costly and has limited pest control effects, this study further demonstrates that if the ethnomedicinal value of invasive weeds can be converted into economic incentives (e.g., standardized harvesting and processing), a win-win situation of pest control (reducing the population of invasive species) and income increase (utilization of medicinal resources) can be achieved. This is highly consistent with the biodiversity-friendly practices advocated in the Global Biodiversity Outlook Report [49].

This finding provides an actionable pathway for addressing two core environmental challenges in the karst paddy field ecosystem of Jingxi: Firstly, to tackle the over-reliance on herbicides, guiding communities to harvest high-value species such as Bidens pilosa and Ageratum houstonianum can naturally reduce the demand for chemical herbicides, alleviating ecological risks like soil pollution and biodiversity decline. Secondly, regarding the difficulty in invasive species management, the medicinal value of 18 invasive weed species confirms the feasibility of the resource utilization-oriented prevention and control strategy, which is more economical and sustainable than chemical eradication.

The inheritance and risk of loss of traditional ecological knowledge (TEK)

Demographic data shows that 43.13% of the informants belong to the 61–70 age group, while the 31–40 age group accounts for only 4.38%. Meanwhile, the Degree of Informants’Consent to Ecological Services (DES) scores show a significant downward trend with increasing age (P = 0.015), which directly confirms the intergenerational disconnect between the younger generation and traditional ecological knowledge (TEK) [50]. This intergenerational gap may lead to two types of irreversible losses: first, the unique medicinal effects of 128 species not included in the Chinese Pharmacopoeia (e.g., the hair-darkening effect of Eclipta prostrata and the treatment of pancreatitis by Ageratum houstonianum) are at risk of permanent loss; second, the sustainable agricultural wisdom based on the multifunctional utilization of weeds [51] can hardly be effectively passed on.

In addition, the loss of TEK is also affected by external pressures: the widespread use of herbicides in the survey area has led to a sharp reduction in medicinal weed resources, and the popularization of modern medicine has further weakened the demand for traditional herbal medicines [52]. Under the dual pressures of intergenerational inheritance gap and external environmental squeeze, the medicinal weed culture of the Zhuang people in Jingxi is at a critical stage transitioning from living inheritance to documentary recording.

In the context of relatively limited primary healthcare resources in the rural karst areas of Jingxi, the weed resources and their associated TEK system systematically documented in this study offer a promising locally-based solution to address this gap. First, they help supplement primary healthcare provision. The 154 medicinal weeds recorded in this study can be used to treat 67 types of ailments, among which five conditions (such as tonsillitis and pancreatitis) showed a high informant consensus factor (FIC ≥ 0.93), indicating strong agreement in their use. Moreover, 61.7% of the species can be utilized in their entirety, and 63.0% are prepared simply by decoction for oral administration. These low-cost, easily accessible features make them particularly suitable for meeting the healthcare needs of the elderly population and hold potential for integration into community health promotion programs, thereby reducing dependence on high-cost pharmaceuticals. Second, they enhance community health resilience. The preservation of TEK is not only a matter of cultural continuity but also an important public health priority. Against the backdrop of climate change potentially altering the distribution patterns of crops and weeds, conserving unique traditional knowledge, such as the use of Eclipta prostrata for blackening hair and Prunella vulgaris for promoting blood circulation and removing blood stasis, it is essential for ensuring the sustainable availability of medicinal resources. In the future, initiatives such as training youth in the identification and use of medicinal weeds, along with mapping local weed resources, could gradually establish a local medicinal resource reserve, thereby systematically strengthening regional health security.

Research limitations and future work

The limitation of this study lies in the lack of integration of chemical component verification for medicinal plants. Future research should focus on pharmacological experiments to elucidate the mechanism linking efficacy to chemical composition. Subsequent work should focus on three aspects: first, the establishment of a medicinal weed database for paddy fields, integrating voucher specimens, efficacy records, and DNA barcode data for 154 plant species, strengthening the foundation for resource conservation and development; second, the creation of a benefit-sharing mechanism for traditional knowledge, ensuring that local residents directly benefit from the use of traditional resources through community-based resource management, forming a “resource conservation-knowledge transformation-benefit sharing” loop, in line with the equity principles of the Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD); third, exploring a model that integrates ecological agriculture and ethnic medicine, developing derivative products such as medicinal dishes and topical formulations based on paddy field weeds, and transforming biodiversity advantages into rural industrial momentum.

Conclusion

This study, through systematic ethnobotanical investigation and cross-regional comparative analysis, reveals for the first time the ethnomedicinal value and core characteristics of traditional ecological knowledge (TEK) associated with paddy weeds in the karst terrain of Jingxi, Guangxi, challenging the conventional binary perception of weeds versus resources. It confirms that Jingxi’s paddy weeds represent an under-explored reservoir of ethnomedicinal potential, whose ecological service value has long been underestimated and whose related TEK is at risk of erosion. TEK and biodiversity are interdependent, with the former providing a cognitive framework for the multifunctional use of weeds and the latter forming the material basis for cross-regional comparison and pharmaceutical innovation. Together, they constitute a core premise for the sustainable management of paddy resources. Specifically, the core contributions of this study are threefold: first, it uncovers the overlooked medicinal potential of paddy weeds, enriching the value dimensions of ethnobotanical resources; second, it provides an empirical case for the resource-oriented utilization of invasive species, reflecting the practical relevance of traditional livelihood wisdom; and third, it prompts a rethinking of conventional agricultural paradigms reliant on chemical weed control, offering both context-specific and operational references as well as theoretical support for biodiversity conservation, ethnomedicinal innovation, and agricultural sustainability in karst regions. Future research should further strengthen the construction of weed resource databases and knowledge benefit-sharing mechanisms, promote the transformation of traditional knowledge and biodiversity advantages into rural industries, and foster the synergistic integration of traditional wisdom and modern science, thereby providing a more comprehensive scientific basis for weed management and sustainable agricultural policy formulation in rice-growing areas.

Acknowledgements

A particular thank to Yunbiao Liao and Caiai Nong for providing us with translation assistances. Many thanks to all informants from Jingxi city.

Declarations

Not applicable.

Competing interests

The authors declare no competing interests.

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Metadaten
Literatur

Titel: Ethnomedicinal value of karst paddy weeds: insights from Zhuang communities in Jingxi, China
Verfasst von: Long Chen
Yujian Liu
Xuan Fan
Renchuan Hu
Shi Qi
Haiou Liu
Yujing Liu
Publikationsdatum: 27.11.2025
Verlag: BioMed Central
Erschienen in: Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine / Ausgabe 1/2025
Elektronische ISSN: 1746-4269
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1186/s13002-025-00838-5

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Springer Medizin

Abstract

Background

Methods

Results

Conclusion

Publisher’s note

Background

Methods

Survey area

Field survey and data collection

Statistical analyses

Results

Species composition and classification characteristics of medicinal weeds in paddy fields

Plant parts utilized and methods of use

Analysis of medicinal potential of weeds and consensus on traditional knowledge

Index of informant consensus (FIC): reflecting the local consensus on disease-species associations

Relative importance (RI): quantifying the comprehensive medicinal value of species

Fidelity level (FL): reflecting the specificity of species in treating a particular disease

The medicinal potential of local weeds

Economic value of local weeds

Medicinal value of invasive weeds

Degree of informants’ consent to the ecological service (DES) analysis

Cross-regional comparative analysis

Discussion

Rice field weeds: an underestimated medicinal resource treasure trove and the uniqueness of traditional knowledge

The “Dual Nature” of invasive weeds: balancing ecological harm and medicinal value

The inheritance and risk of loss of traditional ecological knowledge (TEK)

Research limitations and future work

Conclusion

Acknowledgements

Declarations

Ethics approval and consent to participate

Consent for publication

Competing interests

Publisher’s note

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