Introduction
Methods
Survey sample
Variable | City of residence | ||
---|---|---|---|
Toronto | Vancouver | ||
n(%) | n(%) | ||
Expressed racial identity | Aboriginal | 3(0.4) | 4(0.5) |
Asian | 20(2.8) | 50(6.0) | |
Black | 45(6.4) | 2(0.2) | |
South Asian | 26(3.7) | 42(5.0) | |
Southeast Asian | 10(1.4) | 10(1.2) | |
White | 539(76.4) | 683(81.5) | |
Other | 16(2.3) | 19(2.3) | |
multiple responses | 20(2.8) | 12(1.4) | |
missing | 27(3.8) | 16(1.9) | |
Age | aged 19-34 | 144(20.4) | 104(12.4) |
aged 35-44 | 133(18.8) | 137(16.4) | |
aged 45 - 54 | 163(23.1) | 199(23.8) | |
aged 55-64 | 141(20.0) | 255(26.9) | |
aged 65 and other | 125(17.7) | 173(20.6) | |
Gender | male | 251(35.6) | 274(32.7) |
female | 455(64.4) | 564(67.3) | |
Marital status | married or common law | 368(52.1) | 522(62.3) |
separated, divorced or widowed | 161(22.8) | 189(22.6) | |
never been married | 177(25.1) | 127(15.2) | |
Immigrant status | born in Canada | 457(64.7) | 608(72.6) |
immigrated > 20 years ago | 169(23.9) | 152(18.1) | |
immigrated between 10 and 20 years ago | 39(5.5) | 41(4.9) | |
immigrated < 10 years ago | 41(5.8) | 37(4.4) | |
Educational attainment | high school or less | 157(22.2) | 235(28.0) |
CC, TS or some university | 160(22.7) | 257(30.7) | |
bachelor’s degree | 237(33.6) | 216(25.8) | |
post - graduate degree | 152(21.5) | 130(15.5) | |
Household income | less than $40,000 | 110(15.6) | 130(15.5) |
$40,000 - $59,999 | 89(12.6) | 98(11.7) | |
$60,000 - $79,999 | 103(14.6) | 99(11.7) | |
$80,000 - $99,000 | 72(10.2) | 89(10.6) | |
$100,000 - $149,999 | 101(14.3) | 151(18.0) | |
$150,000 or more | 124(17.6) | 121(14.4) | |
missing | 107(15.2) | 150(17.9) | |
Major discrimination | no experiences | 276(39.1) | 384(45.8) |
one experience | 194(17.5) | 201(24.0) | |
two experiences | 106(15.0) | 116(13.8) | |
three or more experiences | 88(12.5) | 105(12.5) | |
missing | 42(6.0) | 32(3.8) | |
Racial/ethnic major discriminatory experiences | no experiences | 588(83.3) | 735(87.7) |
one experience | 55(7.8) | 57(6.8) | |
two or more experiences | 21(3.0) | 14(1.7) | |
missing | 42(6.0) | 32(3.8) | |
Routine discrimination index | 0 | 148(21.0) | 226(27.0) |
1 or 2 | 194(27.5) | 250(29.8) | |
3 or 4 | 131(18.6) | 147(17.5) | |
5 or greater | 205(29.0) | 189(22.6) | |
missing | 28(4.0) | 26(3.1) | |
Daily stress | not stressful | 99(14.0) | 161(19.2) |
a bit stressful | 367(52.0) | 437(52.2) | |
quite or extremely stressful | 240(34.0) | 240(28.6) |
Survey measures
Statistical analysis
Results
Preliminary analyses
Variable | Expressed racial identity | Hypertension | ||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Asian
|
Black
|
South Asian
|
White
|
Other
|
yes
|
no
| ||
Age | in years - n (sd) | 42.5(14.3) | 40.5(11.2) | 41.1(14.1) | 53.6(14.8) | 44.6(15.2) | 61.75(12.5) | 48.7(14.8) |
F = 35.24, df = 4,1539, p < 0.001
|
F = 200.43, df = 1, 1542, p < 0.001
| |||||||
Gender | female n (%) | 50(71.4) | 37(78.7) | 31(45.6) | 817(66.9) | 84(61.3) | 196(19.2) | 823(80.8) |
male | 20(28.6) | 10(21.3) | 37(54.4) | 405(33.1) | 53(38.7) | 110(20.9) | 415(79.1) | |
Chi - square = 18.68, df = 4, p < 0.01
|
Chi - square = 0.64, df = 1, p > 0.10
| |||||||
Marital status | married or common law | 32(45.7) | 16(34.0) | 47(69.1) | 716(58.6) | 79(57.7) | 157(17.6) | 733(82.4) |
separated, divorced or widowed | 10(14.3) | 9(19.2) | 9(13.2) | 303(24.8) | 19(13.9) | 114(32.6) | 236(67.4) | |
never been married | 28(40.0) | 22(46.8) | 12(17.7) | 203(16.6) | 39(28.5) | 35(11.5) | 269(88.5) | |
Chi - square = 63.83, df = 8, p < 0.001
|
Chi - square = 51.67, df = 2, p < 0.001
| |||||||
Immigrant status | born in Canada | 17(24.3) | 12(25.5) | 15(22.1) | 962(78.7) | 59(43.1) | 211(19.8) | 854(80.2) |
immigrated > 20 years ago | 23(32.9) | 24(51.1) | 21(30.9) | 213(17.4) | 40(29.2) | 81(25.2) | 240(74.8) | |
immigrated between 10 and 20 years ago | 16(22.9) | 6(12.8) | 15(22.1) | 22(1.8) | 21(15.3) | 8(10.0) | 72(90.0) | |
immigrated < 10 years ago | 14(20.0) | 5(10.6) | 17(25.0) | 25(2.1) | 17(12.4) | 6(7.7) | 72(92.3) | |
Chi - square = 388.20, df = 12, p < 0.001
|
Chi - square = 17.99, df = 3, p < 0.001
| |||||||
City of residence | Toronto | 20(28.6) | 45(95.7) | 26(38.2) | 539(44.1) | 76(55.5) | 123(17.4) | 583(82.6) |
Vancouver | 50(71.4) | 2(4.3) | 42(61.8) | 683(55.9) | 61(44.5) | 183(21.8) | 655(78.2) | |
Chi - square = 63.76, df = 4, p < 0.001
|
Chi - square = 4.70, df = 1, p < 0.05
| |||||||
Educational attainment | high school or less | 11(15.7) | 18(38.3) | 16(23.5) | 318(26.0) | 29(21.2) | 95(24.3) | 297(75.8) |
CC, TS or some university | 12(17.1) | 16(34.0) | 15(22.1) | 328(26.8) | 46(33.6) | 93(22.3) | 324(77.7) | |
bachelor’s degree | 35(50.0) | 12(25.5) | 21(30.9) | 343(28.1) | 42(30.7) | 76(16.8) | 377(83.2) | |
post - graduate degree | 12(17.1) | 1(2.1) | 16(23.5) | 233(19.1) | 20(14.6) | 42(14.9) | 240(85.1) | |
Chi - square = 33.56, df = 12, p < 0.01
|
Chi - square = 13.37, df = 3, p < 0.01
| |||||||
Household income | less than $40,000 | 9(12.9) | 17(36.2) | 8(11.8) | 181(14.8) | 25(18.3) | 58(24.2) | 182(75.8) |
$40,000 - $59,999 | 15(21.4) | 6(12.8) | 10(14.7) | 144(11.8) | 12(8.8) | 41(21.9) | 146(78.1) | |
$60,000 - $79,999 | 8(11.4) | 6(12.8) | 8(11.8) | 158(12.9) | 22(16.1) | 33(16.3) | 169(83.7) | |
$80,000 - $99,000 | 7(10.0) | 3(6.4) | 10(14.7) | 128(10.5) | 13(9.5) | 26(16.2) | 135(83.9) | |
$100,000 - 149,999 | 8(11.4) | 5(10.6) | 8(11.8) | 216(17.1) | 15(11.0) | 50(19.8) | 202(80.2) | |
$150,000 or more | 4(5.7) | 1(2.1) | 8(11.8) | 217(17.8) | 15(11.0) | 43(17.6) | 202(78.6) | |
missing | 19(27.1) | 9(19.2) | 16(23.5) | 178(14.6) | 35(25.6) | 55(21.4) | 202(78.6) | |
Chi -square = 63.69, df = 24, p < 0.001
|
Chi - square = 7.48, df = 6, p > 0.10
| |||||||
Major discrimination | no experiences | 37(52.9) | 14(29.8) | 30(44.1) | 534(43.7) | 45(32.9) | 130(19.7) | 530(80.3) |
one experience | 19(27.1) | 7(14.9) | 15(22.1) | 315(25.8) | 39(28.5) | 85(21.5) | 310(78.5) | |
two experiences | 7(10.0) | 9(19.2) | 9(13.2) | 177(14.5) | 20(14.6) | 44(19.8) | 178(80.2) | |
three or more experiences | 2(2.9) | 10(21.3) | 10(14.7) | 149(12.2) | 22(16.1) | 37(19.2) | 156(80.8) | |
missing | 5(7.1) | 7(14.9) | 4(5.9) | 47(3.9) | 11(8.0) | 10(13.5) | 64(86.5) | |
Chi - square = 37.77, df = 16, p < 0.01
|
Chi - square = 2.63, df = 4, p > 0.10
| |||||||
Racial/ethnic major discriminatory experiences | no experiences | 51(72.9) | 21(44.7) | 43(63.2) | 1113(91.1) | 95(69.3) | 274(20.7) | 1049(79.3) |
one experience | 9(12.9) | 12(25.5) | 13(19.1) | 57(4.7) | 21(15.3) | 16(14.3) | 96(85.7) | |
two or more experiences | 5(7.1) | 7(14.9) | 8(11.8) | 5(0.4) | 10(7.3) | 6(17.1) | 29(82.9) | |
missing | 4(7.1) | 7(14.9) | 4(5.9) | 47(3.9) | 11(8.0) | 10(13.5) | 64(86.5) | |
Chi - square = 202.10, df = 12, p < 0.001
|
Chi - square = 4.83, df = 3, p > 0.10
| |||||||
Routine discrimination index | 0 | 14(20.0) | 2(4.3) | 13(19.1) | 316(25.9) | 29(21.2) | 79(21.1) | 295(78.9) |
1 or 2 | 18(25.7) | 6(12.8) | 24(35.3) | 368(30.1) | 28(20.4) | 97(21.9) | 347(78.2) | |
3 or 4 | 10(14.3) | 11(23.4) | 7(10.3) | 233(19.1) | 17(12.4) | 56(20.1) | 222(79.9) | |
5 or greater | 22(31.4) | 24(51.1) | 21(30.9) | 278(22.8) | 49(35.8) | 58(14.7) | 336(85.3) | |
missing | 6(8.6) | 4(8.5) | 3(4.4) | 27(2.2) | 14(10.2) | 16(29.6) | 38(70.4) | |
Chi - square = 82.29, df = 20, p < 0.001
|
Chi - square = 11.28, df = 4, p < 0.05
| |||||||
Daily stress | not stressful | 10(14.3) | 8(17.0) | 16(23.5) | 201(16.5) | 25(18.3) | 65(25.0) | 195(75.0) |
a bit stressful | 44(62.9) | 26(55.3) | 35(51.5) | 626(51.2) | 73(53.3) | 148(18.4) | 656(81.6) | |
quite or extremely stressful | 16(22.9) | 13(27.7) | 17(25.0) | 395(32.3) | 39(28.5) | 93(19.4) | 387(80.6) | |
Chi - square = 7.64, df = 8, p > 0.10
|
Chi - square = 5.46, df = 2, p > 0.05
|
Modeling hypertension
Model 1 | Model 2 | Model 3 | |||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
OR
|
95% Cl
|
OR
|
95% Cl
|
OR
|
95% Cl
| ||
Expressed racial identity | Asian | 0.95 | 0.41 . 2.21 | 0.95 | 0.40 . 2.27 | 0.94 | 0.39 . 2.29 |
Black | 5.16*** | 2.26 . 11.77 | 4.42** | 1.90 . 10.29 | 4.22** | 1.80 . 9.88 | |
South Asian | 0.58 | 0.22 . 1.54 | 0.59 | 0.21 . 1.64 | 0.59 | 0.21 . 1.62 | |
Other | 1.77 | 0.95 . 3.31 | 1.74 | 0.93 . 3.26 | 1.74 | 0.91 . 3.31 | |
White(reference) | 1.00 | 1.00 | 1.00 | ||||
Age in years | ----- | 1.26*** | 1.16 . 1.37 | 1.26*** | 1.16 . 1.37 | 1.26*** | 1.16 . 1.38 |
Age in years squared | ----- | 1.00*** | 1.00 . 1.00 | 1.00*** | 1.00 . 1.00 | 1.00*** | 1.00 . 1.00 |
Immigration status | immigrated > 20 years ago | 1.05 | 0.72 . 1.55 | 1.11 | 0.75 . 1.63 | 1.11 | 0.75 . 1.64 |
immigrated 10–19 years ago | 1.44 | 0.53 . 3.91 | 1.54 | 0.55 . 4.28 | 1.51 | 0.54 . 4.23 | |
immigrated < 10 years ago | 1.42 | 0.56 . 3.58 | 1.70 | 0.67 . 4.36 | 1.74 | 0.68 . 4.43 | |
born in Canada(reference) | 1.00 | 1.00 | 1.00 | ||||
City of residence | Vancouver | 1.23 | 0.90 . 1.68 | 1.17 | 0.85 . 1.60 | 1.18 | 0.85 . 1.63 |
Education | high school or less | ----- | ----- | 0.80 | 0.53 . 1.20 | 2.01** | 1.24 . 3.27 |
c c/ts/come university | ----- | ----- | 0.64* | 0.42 . 0.98 | 1.59 | 0.98 . 2.58 | |
bachelor degree | ----- | ----- | 0.50** | 0.31 . 0.81 | 1.29 | 0.79 . 2.11 | |
post-graduate degree (reference) | ----- | ----- | 1.00 | 1.00 | |||
Routine discrimination scale | 1 or 2 | ----- | ----- | ----- | ----- | 1.10 | 0.73 . 1.67 |
3 or 4 | ----- | ----- | ----- | ----- | 1.28 | 0.78 . 2.08 | |
5 or greater | ----- | ----- | ----- | ----- | 1.24 | 0.76 . 2.03 | |
missing | ----- | ----- | ----- | ----- | 1.17 | 0.54 . 2.54 | |
0 (reference) | ----- | ----- | ----- | ----- | 1.00 | ||
N | 1,544 | 1,544 | 1,544 | ||||
f test (F, df, p) | F = 13.21, df = 10, 1533, p < 0.001 | F = 10.68, df = 13, 1530, p < 0.001 | F = 8.20, df = 17, 1526, p < 0.001 | ||||
MacFadden pseudo R - squared | 0.142 | 0.146 | 0.149 |