The insulin-like growth factor (IGF) pathway is implicated in the pathogenesis of hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) and may be important in nonalcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD). The aim of this study is to determine expression levels of IGFs and receptors in NAFLD-associated HCC.
Methods
Tissue microarrays were constructed from patients who underwent hepatectomy for HCC. Immunohistochemistry was performed using antibodies for IGF ligands and receptors. Immunostain results were scored by a pathologist blinded to clinical data.
Results
Among 27 patients with HCC, the most common underlying liver diseases included NAFLD, hepatitis C, and alcoholic hepatitis. Expression levels of IGFs and receptors were not associated with patients’ underlying liver disease. In all patients, IGF-2 expression was upregulated in tumor and adjacent non-neoplastic liver. Expression of IGF-1 was low in adjacent liver in 6 of 10 patients with cirrhosis, compared with 2 of 17 patients without cirrhosis (P = 0.025). Higher IGF-1 expression in liver adjacent to tumor was associated with poorer median survival of 22 months, compared with 72 months with equal or lower IGF-1 expression in adjacent liver relative to tumor (P = 0.006).
Conclusions
Our preliminary results demonstrate significant associations between IGF-1 expression and liver cirrhosis and survival after resection in patients with HCC, independent of their underlying liver disease.
The online version of this article (doi:10.1186/1477-7819-12-231) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.
Competing interests
The authors declare that they have no competing interests.
Authors’ contributions
YSC participated in the study design, analyzed the data, and prepared the manuscript. MH acquired materials, interpreted data, and prepared the manuscript. LR acquired materials, performed the immunohistochemistry, and prepared the manuscript. MVM participated in the study design and prepared the manuscript. All authors read and approved the final manuscript.
Abkürzungen
HCC
hepatocellular carcinoma
IGF
insulin-like growth factor
IGF-1
insulin-like growth factor-1
IGF-1R
insulin-like growth factor-1 receptor
IGF-2
insulin-like growth factor-2
IGF-2R
insulin-like growth factor-2 receptor
MAPK
mitogen-activated protein kinase
NAFLD
nonalcoholic fatty liver disease
PI3K/Akt
phosphatidylinositide 3-kinase/Akt
SHC
Src homology 2 domain-containing transforming protein 1.
Background
Hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) is the fifth most prevalent cancer worldwide and the fastest growing cause of cancer-related death in the United States male population [1]. Nonalcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD) is increasingly recognized as a growing cause of nonalcoholic steatohepatitis, progressing to cirrhosis and HCC. Alarmingly, NAFLD may directly promote hepatocarcinogenesis independent of steatohepatitis or cirrhosis [2]. In addition, NAFLD may exert synergistic effects with viral hepatitis in the development of HCC [3]. Nonalcoholic fatty liver disease is the major hepatic manifestation of the metabolic syndrome, marked by obesity, type 2 diabetes, hypertension, or hyperlipidemia. Population studies demonstrate a 90% increased risk of HCC in the obese, while type 2 diabetes confers a three-fold increased risk [4, 5]. Both NAFLD and associated HCC are growing public health concerns, owing to the epidemic of obesity in the United States, with nearly two-thirds of the adult population classified as overweight or obese [6, 7].
The molecular basis for the transformation of NAFLD into HCC is poorly understood. Previous studies have demonstrated that the insulin-like growth factor (IGF) signal transduction pathway is activated early in up to 90% of HCC and may be particularly important in patients with the metabolic syndrome and NAFLD [8]. The hallmark of the metabolic syndrome is insulin resistance, and the resultant hyperinsulinemia leads to decreased concentrations of IGF binding proteins and increased levels of bioavailable insulin-like growth factor-1 (IGF-1) [9]. In addition, plasma levels of insulin-like growth factor-2 (IGF-2) are increased in obese and type 2 diabetic patients [10]. Signaling through the insulin and IGF-1 receptors has been shown to increase cellular proliferation, inhibit apoptosis, and promote metastasis.
Anzeige
The IGF pathway is composed of ligands, receptors, substrates, and ligand binding proteins (Figure 1) [11, 12]. The ligands are insulin, IGF-1, and IGF-2. Insulin-like growth factor-1, produced mainly in the liver, circulates as an endocrine hormone but is also synthesized in target tissues, where it works in a paracrine or autocrine fashion. Insulin-like growth factor-2 is highly expressed in fetal liver but rapidly downregulated after birth, and its physiologic function in adult liver remains obscure. The IGF-1 receptor (IGF-1R) is a tyrosine kinase cell-surface receptor that is activated by IGF-1 and IGF-2, and by insulin at a much lower affinity. Signaling via IGF-1R leads to phosphorylation of insulin receptor substrate and Src homology 2 domain-containing transforming protein 1 (SHC). Phosphorylation of these receptor substrates results in activation of the phosphatidylinositide 3-kinase/Akt (PI3K/Akt) and mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) signaling cascades and plays a key role in promoting malignant transformation of many cancers, including breast, colon, and lung cancer. The insulin-like growth factor-2 receptor (IGF-2R) lacks a tyrosine kinase domain and acts as a growth inhibitor by directing IGF-2 to lysosomal degradation. This receptor has low affinity for IGF-1 and does not bind insulin [13].
Figure 1
Insulin-like growth factor pathway. Bioavailability of the ligands IGF-1 and IGF-2 is regulated by IGF binding proteins. The insulin receptor and IGF-1R are tyrosine kinase cell-surface receptors that recruit and phosphorylate adaptor proteins belonging to the insulin receptor substrate or SHC family, leading to activation of the PI3K/Akt and MAPK signaling cascades. IGF-2R lacks an intracellular tyrosine kinase domain and leads to IGF-2 degradation. IGF-1, insulin-like growth factor-1; IGF-1R, insulin-like growth factor-1 receptor; IGF-2, insulin-like growth factor-2; IGF-2R, insulin-like growth factor-2 receptor; IRS, insulin receptor substrate; MAPK, mitogen-activated protein kinase; P13K/Akt, phosphatidylinositide 3-kinase/Akt; SHC, Src homology 2 domain-containing transforming protein 1.
×
This study sought to determine expression levels of IGFs and their receptors in patients with HCC associated with NAFLD and other underlying liver diseases. We hypothesized that patients with NAFLD-related HCC have alterations in the IGF pathway that are distinct from those in patients with HCC from other causes, such as viral and alcoholic hepatitis. Identification of upregulated components of the IGF pathway may have potential therapeutic implications for patients who may benefit from treatment with IGF-1R inhibitors, which have shown promising anticancer activity in clinical trials [11].
Methods
Tissue microarray construction
Formalin-fixed, paraffin-embedded blocks from patients who underwent liver resection for HCC at Fox Chase Cancer Center (Philadelphia, PA, USA) were used to construct tissue microarrays. Areas containing viable tumor cells and adjacent non-neoplastic liver parenchyma >1 cm from the tumor margin were marked by a pathologist. Three 1.0-mm cores were taken from tumor and non-neoplastic tissue and arrayed on a paraffin block.
Immunohistochemistry
Immunohistochemistry was performed as previously described [14, 15]. Briefly, after deparaffinization and rehydration, tissue sections (5 μm thick) were subjected to antigen retrieval, followed by peroxidase block and treatment with a blocking reagent for nonspecific binding. The slides were then incubated overnight with primary antibody at 4°C in a humidified chamber. The following primary antibodies were used: IGF-1 (Santa Cruz Biotechnology, Santa Cruz, CA, dilution 1:100), IGF-2 (Abcam, Cambridge, MA, 1:500), IGF-1R (Cell Signaling, Danvers, MA, 1:50), and IGF-2R (Cell Signaling, 1:50); followed by peroxidase-conjugated secondary antibody. Normal kidney served as positive controls for IGF-1, IGF-1R, and IGF-2. Negative controls included omission of primary antibody.
Anzeige
All immunohistochemistry evaluation was performed in a blinded manner by an attending pathologist. The slides were scored semiquantitatively. A score of 0 indicated no staining, 1 indicated focal weak staining, 2 indicated moderately positive staining, and 3 indicated intensely positive staining. Tumors with strong staining (scores 2 to 3) were grouped, and tumors with weak or no staining (scores 0 to 1) were grouped. All analyses were performed in triplicate.
Correlation with clinicopathologic factors
Electronic medical records of 27 patients who underwent liver resection for HCC between 1994 and 2011 were reviewed. Patients were diagnosed with NAFLD-associated HCC if they did not have a history of alcohol abuse or viral hepatitis, had features of the metabolic syndrome, such as diabetes, hyperlipidemia, or hypertension, and had evidence of hepatic steatosis on pathologic examination. Tumors were staged after resection according to the 7th edition of the American Joint Committee on Cancer Staging Manual[16]. This study was approved by the Fox Chase Cancer Center Institutional Review Board, which waived the requirement for informed consent.
Statistical analysis
Categorical variables were compared using Fisher’s exact test. Continuous data were expressed as the median and range and compared using the Mann-Whitney test. Survival analysis was performed using the Kaplan-Meier method, and differences in survival were compared using the log-rank test. Factors significant in univariate analysis (P < 0.05) were entered into multivariate analysis, performed using the Cox proportional-hazards model. All statistical tests were two-sided; the significance parameter was set at P < 0.05. Statistical analysis was performed using SPSS software, version 17.0 (SPSS, Inc., Chicago, IL, USA).
Results
Clinicopathologic factors of the 27 patients who underwent resection of HCC are depicted in Table 1. Median follow-up was 26 months (range, 2 to 136 months). One patient died from postoperative complications.
Table 1
Clinicopathologic factors in 27 patients undergoing resection of hepatocellular carcinoma
Clinicopathologic factor
n
Median age (range)
74 (34 to 81)
Male
14
Race
White
24
Asian
2
African American
1
Risk factor for hepatocellular carcinoma
Nonalcoholic fatty liver disease
13
Hepatitis C
7
Alcoholic hepatitis
2
Transformed adenoma
2
Othera
3
Cirrhosis
Yes
10
No
17
Vascular invasion
Yes
9
No
18
Multiple tumors
Yes
5
No
22
Maximum tumor size > 5 cm
Yes
14
No
13
Preoperative median serum α-fetoprotein level (range)
6 (1 to 8122)
Preoperative median Model for End-Stage Liver Disease score (range)
7 (6 to 12)
Tumor grade
Well differentiated
13
Moderately differentiated
8
Poorly differentiated
4
Unknown
2
Hepatectomy
Minor (resection of <3 segments)
22
Major (resection of ≥3 segments)
5
American Joint Committee on Cancer, 7th edition stage
I
16
II
8
IIIA
2
IIIB
1
aOther diagnoses were fibrolamellar carcinoma, clear cell carcinoma, and hemochromatosis.
Expression levels of IGFs and their receptors were not associated with patients’ underlying liver disease, with the exception of IGF-1R (Tables 2 and 3). In HCC tumor samples, IGF-1R expression was low in 24 of 27 patients. In adjacent noncancerous liver, IGF-1R was strongly expressed in only one patient with alcoholic hepatitis. Intense immunoreactivity was observed for IGF-2 in all paired samples of tumor and background liver.
Table 2
Proportion of patients with positive immunohistochemical staining in hepatocellular carcinoma tumor tissues stratified by underlying liver disease
Nonalcoholic fatty liver disease
Hepatitis C
Alcoholic hepatitis
Transformed adenoma
Othera
P
IGF-1
8/13
6/7
1/2
2/2
3/3
0.418
IGF-1R
0/13
1/7
1/2
1/2
0/3
0.085
IGF-2
13/13
7/7
2/2
2/2
3/3
Not applicable
IGF-2R
6/13
3/7
1/2
1/2
2/3
0.972
aOne patient each with fibrolamellar carcinoma, clear cell carcinoma, and hemochromatosis. Positive staining was defined as moderately or intensely positive staining.
Table 3
Proportion of patients with positive immunohistochemical staining in adjacent non-neoplastic liver stratified by underlying liver disease
Nonalcoholic fatty liver disease
Hepatitis C
Alcoholic hepatitis
Transformed adenoma
Othera
P
IGF-1
8/13
4/7
2/2
2/2
3/3
0.403
IGF-1R
0/13
0/7
1/2
0/2
0/3
0.011
IGF-2
13/13
7/7
2/2
2/2
3/3
Not applicable
IGF-2R
6/13
2/7
2/2
2/2
3/3
0.087
aOne patient each with fibrolamellar carcinoma, clear cell carcinoma, and hemochromatosis. Positive staining was defined as moderately or intensely positive staining.
Associations between clinicopathologic factors and expression of IGF ligands and receptors in HCC tumor samples
The HCC expression of IGF-2R was significantly higher in men, with strong staining in 10 of 14 men versus 3 of 13 women (P = 0.021). Expression levels of IGFs and their receptors in HCC were not associated with patient age, American Joint Committee on Cancer stage, tumor size, number, grade, serum α-fetoprotein concentration, Model for End-Stage Liver Disease score, or the presence of vascular invasion (all P > 0.05).
Associations between clinicopathologic factors and expression of IGF ligands and receptors in paired samples of adjacent non-neoplastic liver
Expression of IGF-1 was low in non-neoplastic liver in 6 of 10 patients with cirrhosis, compared with 2 of 17 patients without cirrhosis (P = 0.025, Figure 2).
Figure 2
Representative IGF-1 expression in hepatocellular carcinoma. Immunohistochemical staining in a patient with cirrhosis showing higher IGF-1 expression in (a) hepatocellular carcinoma compared with (b) adjacent non-neoplastic liver. Original magnifications, 20× and 40× for (a) and (b), respectively.
×
Expression of IGFs and their receptors in adjacent noncancerous liver was not associated with patient age, sex, American Joint Committee on Cancer stage, tumor size, number, grade, serum α-fetoprotein, or the presence of vascular invasion (all P > 0.05).
Anzeige
Overall survival and differential IGF-1 expression in tumor versus adjacent non-neoplastic liver
Higher IGF-1 expression in non-neoplastic liver was associated with significantly poorer median survival of 22 months (95% confidence interval, 0 to 54 months), compared with 72 months (95% confidence interval, 37 to 107 months) with equal or lower IGF-1 expression in adjacent liver relative to tumor (P = 0.006, Figure 3). On multivariate analysis, higher IGF-1 expression in adjacent noncancerous liver remained an independent predictor of overall survival (Table 4).
Figure 3
Kaplan-Meier curves of patients with hepatocellular carcinoma. Overall survival in 27 patients undergoing resection of hepatocellular carcinoma was significantly lower in patients with higher IGF-1 expression in adjacent non-neoplastic liver compared with tumor.
×
Table 4
Multivariate analysis of overall survival
Factor
Median overall survival (range)a
Univariate P value
Multivariate P value
Hazard ratio (95% confidence ratio)
Cirrhosis
0.506
Yes, n = 10
56 (29 to 83)
No, n = 17
77 (27 to 127)
Vascular invasion
0.020
0.048
4.477 (1.013 to 19.789)
Yes, n = 9
30 (22 to 38)
No, n = 18
72 (43 to 101)
Multiple tumors
0.469
Yes, n = 5
56 (35 to 77)
No, n = 22
72 (12 to 132)
Size >5 cm
0.448
Yes, n = 14
31 (0 to 73)
No, n = 13
72
Underlying liver disease
0.652
Nonalcoholic fatty liver disease, n = 13
30
Hepatitis C, n = 7
77
Alcoholic hepatitis, n = 2
22
Transformed adenoma, n = 2
Not reached
Other, n = 3b
31
Sex
0.275
Male, n = 14
72 (35 to 109)
Female, n = 13
43 (26 to 60)
Age
Not estimable
0.099
American Joint Committee on Cancer stage
0.212
I, n = 16
72 (8 to 136)
II, n = 8
31 (29 to 33)
III, n = 3
136
Grade
0.427
1, n = 13
72 (43 to 102)
2, n = 8
30
3, n = 4
Not estimable
Unknown, n = 2
13
Serum α-fetoprotein concentration
Not estimable
0.099
Model for End-Stage Liver Disease score
Not estimable
0.482
Higher IGF-1 expression in adjacent liver than tumor
0.006
0.040
7.889 (1.096 to 56.761)
Yes, n = 3
22 (0 to 54)
No, n = 24
72 (37 to 107)
aRange not estimable in all categories. bOne patient each with fibrolamellar carcinoma, clear cell carcinoma, and hemochromatosis.
Discussion
Nonalcoholic fatty liver disease is emerging as a major public health concern in the United States, owing to its progression to steatohepatitis, cirrhosis, and HCC. It affects 30% of the United States population and 90% of the morbidly obese [1]. The molecular mechanisms underlying malignant transformation in NAFLD to HCC are not well elucidated. Dysregulation of the IGF pathway is implicated in the pathogenesis of HCC, particularly in patients with NAFLD and the metabolic syndrome, which are associated with insulin resistance, chronic hyperinsulinemia, and increased levels of bioavailable IGF-1. In this study, expression levels of IGF-1, IGF-2, and their receptors were determined in paired samples of tumor and adjacent non-neoplastic liver from patients who underwent liver resection for HCC. The most common chronic liver disease was NAFLD, followed by hepatitis C and alcoholic hepatitis. Our preliminary results demonstrate that expression levels of IGF ligands and receptors are not associated with patients’ underlying liver disease.
In this report, IGF-1 expression in adjacent non-neoplastic liver was low in patients with cirrhosis compared with noncirrhotic patients. These results are consistent with prior studies showing reduced serum levels of IGF-1 in patients with hepatocellular dysfunction [17, 18]. The chief stimulus for IGF-1 synthesis is growth hormone binding to its receptors on hepatocytes, leading to Igf1 gene transcription. In patients with chronic liver disease, the decline in circulating IGF-1 levels is hypothesized to result from decreased functional liver mass and an attenuated IGF-1 response to growth hormone stimulation. In a recent study of 288 patients with HCC, low plasma IGF-1 levels were found to correlate with advanced clinicopathologic parameters and poor overall survival [19].
A key finding in this study was that higher IGF-1 expression in adjacent non-neoplastic liver than in tumor correlated with significantly poorer survival after resection of HCC. On multivariate analysis, higher IGF-1 in background liver and vascular invasion remained independent predictors of worse outcome. Activation of the IGF-1 signaling cascade leads to upregulation of downstream mitogens, including MAPK and PI3K/Akt. Preclinical studies have identified local IGF-1 synthesis in several cancer cell types, including HCC, leading to autocrine and paracrine effects on cell cycle progression and inhibition of apoptosis [8, 12]. Our results support the hypothesis that during hepatocarcinogenesis, secretion of IGF-1 by adjacent hepatocytes may lead to paracrine stimulation of HCC and more aggressive tumor behavior.
Anzeige
The present data underscore the importance of IGF-2 in the pathogenesis of HCC. We found strong IGF-2 immunoreactivity in all samples of HCC and adjacent non-neoplastic liver. Other investigators have observed upregulation of IGF-2 in 16% to 100% of HCCs [20, 21]. Consistent with our findings, Park et al.[22] identified IGF-2 immunoreactivity in paired noncancerous liver tissues, both at a distance from HCC tumors and in close contact with the growing edges of tumor. In normal adult liver, IGF-2 expression is low, and its physiologic function is unclear. However, in hepatitis and cirrhosis, IGF-2 expression is increased, owing to reactivation of fetal promoters that induce Igf2 gene transcription [23]. Upregulation of IGF-2 leads to multiple oncogenic effects, including cell proliferation, anti-apoptosis, and angiogenesis [3].
The chief limitation of this study is the small numbers of patients, and our results require validation in a larger sample population. We did not examine immunoreactivity of insulin receptor substrates and binding proteins, which are key components of the IGF signaling cascade. In addition, we plan to examine downstream effects of IGF signaling dysregulation, including effects on the PI3K and MAPK pathways.
Conclusions
In conclusion, NAFLD was the most common underlying liver disease in this study of patients undergoing resection of HCC. Expression levels of IGF ligands and receptors did not correlate with patients’ underlying liver disease. Others have reported overexpression of the IGF receptors in HCC, which was not observed in the current study, although our results should be interpreted cautiously, owing to the small number of patients [23]. Insulin-like growth factor-2 demonstrated strong immunoreactivity in all patient samples of tumor and adjacent liver, indicating the importance of IGF-2 in early and late stages hepatocarcinogenesis. Insulin-like growth factor-1 staining was low in the background liver of cirrhotic patients, consistent with previous literature showing low IGF-1 levels in patients with hepatocellular dysfunction. Patients with higher expression of IGF-1 in adjacent liver than in tumor had significantly lower overall survival, suggesting that increased IGF-1 synthesis by neighboring hepatocytes may lead to aggressive tumor biology. These results merit confirmation in a larger number of patients and support continued investigation of the IGF signaling cascade for potential therapeutic targets in HCC.
Acknowledgement
This work was supported, in part, by the Marvin S. Greenberg, MD, Fund at Fox Chase Cancer Center.
Anzeige
This article is published under license to BioMed Central Ltd. This is an Open Access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly credited. The Creative Commons Public Domain Dedication waiver (http://creativecommons.org/publicdomain/zero/1.0/) applies to the data made available in this article, unless otherwise stated.
Competing interests
The authors declare that they have no competing interests.
Authors’ contributions
YSC participated in the study design, analyzed the data, and prepared the manuscript. MH acquired materials, interpreted data, and prepared the manuscript. LR acquired materials, performed the immunohistochemistry, and prepared the manuscript. MVM participated in the study design and prepared the manuscript. All authors read and approved the final manuscript.
Das Karpaltunnelsyndrom ist die häufigste Kompressionsneuropathie peripherer Nerven. Obwohl die Anamnese mit dem nächtlichen Einschlafen der Hand (Brachialgia parästhetica nocturna) sehr typisch ist, ist eine klinisch-neurologische Untersuchung und Elektroneurografie in manchen Fällen auch eine Neurosonografie erforderlich. Im Anfangsstadium sind konservative Maßnahmen (Handgelenksschiene, Ergotherapie) empfehlenswert. Bei nicht Ansprechen der konservativen Therapie oder Auftreten von neurologischen Ausfällen ist eine Dekompression des N. medianus am Karpaltunnel indiziert.
Das Webinar beschäftigt sich mit Fragen und Antworten zu Diagnostik und Klassifikation sowie Möglichkeiten des Ausschlusses von Zusatzverletzungen. Die Referenten erläutern, welche Frakturen konservativ behandelt werden können und wie. Das Webinar beantwortet die Frage nach aktuellen operativen Therapiekonzepten: Welcher Zugang, welches Osteosynthesematerial? Auf was muss bei der Nachbehandlung der distalen Radiusfraktur geachtet werden?
Inhalte des Webinars zur S1-Leitlinie „Empfehlungen zur Therapie der akuten Appendizitis bei Erwachsenen“ sind die Darstellung des Projektes und des Erstellungswegs zur S1-Leitlinie, die Erläuterung der klinischen Relevanz der Klassifikation EAES 2015, die wissenschaftliche Begründung der wichtigsten Empfehlungen und die Darstellung stadiengerechter Therapieoptionen.
