Background
Methods
Ethics
Study design
Recruiting and inclusion criteria
Assessments
Statistical analysis
Results
Analysis sample
Sociodemographic characteristics
Not Overusing Medication n = 11,542 | Overusing Medication n = 2107 | Total Sample n = 13,649 | Chi | P-value | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Sex | |||||
Men | 3074 (26.6) | 621 (29.5) | 3695 (27.1) | 7.136 | 0.008 |
Women | 8468 (73.4) | 1486 (70.5) | 9954 (72.9) | ||
Ageb, years (mean ± SD) | 43.0 ± 13.6 | 45.8 ± 13.2 | 43.41 ± 13.62 | 8.891 | < 0.001 |
Age group, years | |||||
18–24 | 899 (7.8) | 80 (3.8) | 979 (7.2) | 96.346 | < 0.001 |
25–34 | 2831 (24.5) | 409 (19.4) | 3240 (23.7) | ||
35–44 | 2775 (24.0) | 518 (24.6) | 3293 (24.1) | ||
45–54 | 2566 (22.2) | 546 (25.9) | 3112 (22.8) | ||
55–64 | 1572 (13.6) | 348 (16.5) | 1920 (14.1) | ||
65–74 | 815 (7.1) | 184 (8.7) | 999 (7.3) | ||
75+ | 84 (0.7) | 22 (1.0) | 106 (0.8) | ||
Married | |||||
No | 5261 (45.7) | 867 (41.4) | 6128 (45.1) | 13.436 | < 0.001 |
Yes | 6245 (54.3) | 1229 (58.6) | 7474 (54.9) | ||
Race | |||||
Non-Caucasian | 2091 (18.2) | 361 (17.2) | 2452 (18.1) | 1.166 | 0.280 |
Caucasian | 9379 (81.8) | 1736 (82.8) | 11,115 (81.9) | ||
Household income, $ | |||||
< 25,000 | 1254 (11.2) | 292 (14.2) | 1546 (11.6) | 17.025 | 0.002 |
25,000–49,999 | 2422 (21.6) | 444 (21.6) | 2866 (21.6) | ||
50,000–74,999 | 2493 (22.2) | 437 (21.3) | 2930 (22.1) | ||
75,000–99,999 | 1986 (17.7) | 363 (17.7) | 2349 (17.7) | ||
≥ 100,000 | 3070 (27.3) | 516 (25.1) | 3586 (27.0) | ||
Education, ≥4-year college degree | |||||
No | 4612 (40.0) | 1018 (48.3) | 5630 (41.2) | 51.000 | < 0.001 |
Yes | 6930 (60.0) | 1089 (51.7) | 8019 (58.8) | ||
BMIb, kg/m2 (mean ± SD) | 28.1 ± 7.4 | 28.9 ± 8.5 | 28.3 ± 7.6 | 4.380 | < 0.001 |
BMI category | |||||
Underweight | 329 (2.9) | 94 (4.5) | 423 (3.1) | 44.240 | < 0.001 |
Normal | 4154 (36.0) | 645 (30.6) | 4799 (35.2) | ||
Overweight | 3387 (29.3) | 588 (27.9) | 3975 (29.1) | ||
Obese | 3672 (31.8) | 780 (37.0) | 4452 (32.6) | ||
Health insurance | |||||
No | 945 (8.2) | 184 (8.7) | 1129 (8.3) | 0.628 | 0.428 |
Yes | 10,597 (91.8) | 1923 (91.3) | 12,520 (91.7) | ||
Psychological symptomsc | |||||
No | 9210 (79.8) | 1275 (60.5) | 10,485 (76.8) | 370.957 | < 0.001 |
Yes | 2332 (20.2) | 832 (39.5) | 3164 (23.2) | ||
Current smoker | |||||
No | 10,387 (90.0) | 1718 (81.5) | 12,105 (88.7) | 126.127 | < 0.001 |
Yes | 1155 (10.0) | 389 (18.5) | 1544 (11.3) |
Headache features
Not Overusing Medication n = 11,542 | Overusing Medication n = 2107 | Total Sample n = 13,649 | Chi | P-value | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
MHDsa (mean ± SD) | 4.3 ± 4.3 | 12.9 ± 8.6 | 5.6 ± 6.0 | 69.7 | < 0.001 |
MHD category, n (%) | |||||
0–4 | 8054 (69.8) | 451 (21.4) | 8505 (62.3) | 2830.498 | < 0.001 |
5–9 | 2351 (20.4) | 380 (18.0) | 2731 (20.0) | ||
10–14 | 656 (5.7) | 417 (19.8) | 1073 (7.9) | ||
≥ 15 | 481 (4.2) | 859 (40.8) | 1340 (9.8) | ||
Cutaneous allodynia, n (%) | |||||
No | 7208 (62.5) | 976 (46.3) | 8184 (60.0) | 192.380 | < 0.001 |
Yes | 4334 (37.5) | 1131 (53.7) | 5465 (40.0) | ||
MSSSa (scale of 0–21) | 16.4 ± 3.0 | 17.8 ± 2.7 | 16.6 ± 3.0 | 19.433 | < 0.001 |
Pain intensitya (scale of 0–10) | 6.5 ± 1.6 | 7.4 ± 1.6 | 6.7 ± 1.6 | 22.7 | < 0.001 |
Logistic regression
Model | ||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 | |
Sociodemographics | Psychological symptomsa | Headache characteristics | Sex-by-allodynia interaction | Men | Women | |
Male | 1.05 (0.95, 1.17) | 1.01 (0.91, 1.13) | 1.32 (1.16, 1.50) | 1.10 (0.93, 1.31) | – | – |
Age | 1.01 (1.01, 1.02) | 1.02 (1.01, 1.02) | 1.02 (1.02, 1.03) | 1.02 (1.02, 1.03) | 1.02 (1.01, 1.03) | 1.02 (1.02, 1.03) |
Married | 1.12 (1.02, 1.24) | 1.19 (1.07, 1.31) | 1.19 (1.06, 1.34) | 1.18 (1.05, 1.33) | 1.44 (1.14, 1.83) | 1.10 (0.95, 1.26) |
< 4-year college degree | 0.80 (0.72, 0.88) | 0.85 (0.77, 0.94) | 0.99 (0.88, 1.12) | 0.99 (0.88, 1.11) | 1.13 (0.90, 1.41) | 0.93 (0.81, 1.07) |
BMI | 1.01 (1.01, 1.02) | 1.01 (1.00, 1.01) | 1.00 (1.00, 1.01) | 1.00 (1.00, 1.01) | 1.44 (1.14, 1.83) | 1.00 (1.00, 1.01) |
Psychological symptomsa | – | 2.61 (2.36, 2.89) | 1.62 (1.43, 1.83) | 1.60 (1.41, 1.81) | 1.94 (1.54, 2.45) | 1.48 (1.28, 1.72) |
Current smoker | 2.05 (1.80, 2.33) | 1.78 (1.56, 2.03) | 1.54 (1.31, 1.81) | 1.52 (1.30, 1.79) | 1.65 (1.25, 2.16) | 1.42 (1.16, 1.74) |
Cutaneous allodynia | – | – | 1.22 (1.08, 1.37) | 1.09 (0.95, 1.25) | 1.61 (1.28, 2.03) | 1.08 (0.94, 1.25) |
MHDs (vs 0–4, reference) | 1.0 | |||||
5–9 | – | – | 2.50 (2.15, 2.90) | 2.50 (2.15, 2.90) | 2.46 (1.89, 3.20) | 2.52 (2.10, 3.01) |
10–14 | – | – | 9.73 (8.27, 11.45) | 9.75 (8.28, 11.47) | 8.20 (6.03, 11.16) | 10.44 (8.60, 12.67) |
≥ 15 | – | – | 27.34 (23.43, 31.89) | 27.45 (23.53, 32.04) | 21.01 (15.64, 28.21) | 30.25 (25.20, 36.30) |
MSSS | – | – | 1.06 (1.04, 1.09) | 1.06 (1.04, 1.09) | 1.06 (1.02, 1.10) | 1.06 (1.03, 1.09) |
Pain intensity | – | – | 1.27 (1.22, 1.32) | 1.27 (1.22, 1.32) | 1.21 (1.13, 1.31) | 1.28 (1.22, 1.35) |
Sex-by-allodynia interaction | – | – | – | 1.53 (1.18, 1.97) | – | – |