Background
Methods
Study setting
Study design, data collection and analysis
Ethics statement
Results
No PNC | PNC Use | Chi-Square p-valuea
| |||
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Weighted N | % | Weighted N | % | ||
Child-related factors
| |||||
Child's sex | 0.653 | ||||
Boy | 1223 | 51.0 | 185 | 52.4 | |
Girl | 1173 | 49.0 | 168 | 47.6 | |
Size at birthb
| 0.435 | ||||
Small size | 353 | 14.8 | 58 | 16.4 | |
Normal or larger size | 2028 | 85.2 | 294 | 83.6 | |
Birth order number |
<0.001
| ||||
One | 345 | 14.4 | 99 | 28.0 | |
Two | 414 | 17.3 | 80 | 22.7 | |
Three | 349 | 14.6 | 58 | 16.4 | |
Four and more | 1287 | 53.8 | 116 | 32.9 | |
Mother-related factors
| |||||
Mother's age at delivery |
<0.001
| ||||
<20 years | 97 | 4.1 | 31 | 8.9 | |
20–29 years | 1155 | 48.2 | 186 | 52.8 | |
30–39 years | 853 | 35.6 | 112 | 31.8 | |
40–49 years | 290 | 12.1 | 23 | 6.5 | |
Marital status, and decision about woman’s health careb
|
0.010
| ||||
Never married, divorced, separated, widowed | 434 | 18.1 | 57 | 16.1 | |
Married or partnered, woman not involved in decisions | 529 | 22.1 | 103 | 29.3 | |
Married or partnered, woman involved in decisions | 1427 | 59.7 | 192 | 59.1 | |
Mother's education |
<0.001
| ||||
No education | 581 | 24.2 | 51 | 14.5 | |
Primary | 1655 | 69.1 | 255 | 72.3 | |
Secondary/higher | 160 | 6.7 | 47 | 13.3 | |
Mother's employmentb
| 0.200 | ||||
Not working | 208 | 8.7 | 38 | 10.8 | |
Working | 2184 | 91.3 | 315 | 89.2 | |
Wanted last child* |
0.010
| ||||
Wanted child | 1283 | 53.6 | 209 | 59.3 | |
Wanted child but later | 664 | 27.7 | 100 | 28.3 | |
Wanted no more children | 447 | 18.7 | 44 | 12.5 | |
Antenatal visits during pregnancyb
|
<0.001
| ||||
Less than four | 1698 | 71.1 | 206 | 58.8 | |
Four and more | 691 | 28.9 | 145 | 41.2 | |
Received tetanus injections before birth* |
<0.001
| ||||
No | 712 | 29.9 | 64 | 18.1 | |
Yes | 1668 | 70.1 | 288 | 81.9 | |
Assisted deliveryb
|
<0.001
| ||||
No | 1628 | 68.1 | 141 | 40.1 | |
Yes | 763 | 31.9 | 210 | 59.9 | |
Delivery by caesarean section |
<0.001
| ||||
No | 2113 | 88.2 | 286 | 80.9 | |
Yes | 282 | 11.8 | 67 | 19.1 | |
Place of delivery |
<0.001
| ||||
Not at health facility | 1543 | 64.4 | 120 | 33.9 | |
At health facility | 852 | 35.6 | 233 | 66.1 | |
Mother insuredb
|
0.002
| ||||
No | 810 | 33.8 | 88 | 24.8 | |
Yes | 1583 | 66.2 | 265 | 75.2 | |
Getting medical help for self: distance to health facilityb
| 0.640 | ||||
Big problem | 761 | 31.8 | 108 | 30.6 | |
Not a big problem | 1632 | 68.2 | 245 | 69.4 | |
Getting medical help for self: getting money needed for treatmentb
|
0.046
| ||||
Big problem | 1459 | 61.0 | 196 | 55.5 | |
Not a big problem | 934 | 39.0 | 157 | 44.5 | |
Household-related factors
| |||||
Place of residence |
0.004
| ||||
Urban | 265 | 11.1 | 58 | 16.5 | |
Rural | 2130 | 88.9 | 295 | 83.5 | |
Wealth index |
<0.001
| ||||
Poorest | 650 | 27.1 | 72 | 20.5 | |
Poorer | 563 | 23.5 | 82 | 23.3 | |
Middle | 489 | 20.4 | 59 | 16.7 | |
Richer | 397 | 16.6 | 60 | 17 | |
Richest | 297 | 12.4 | 80 | 22.6 | |
Region |
<0.001
| ||||
Kigali city | 203 | 8.5 | 50 | 14.2 | |
South | 616 | 25.7 | 129 | 36.5 | |
West | 568 | 23.7 | 39 | 11.1 | |
North | 397 | 16.6 | 83 | 23.5 | |
East | 611 | 25.5 | 52 | 14.7 |
Full Model | Reduced Model | |||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
(n weighted=2599) | (n weighted=2741) | |||||
ORa
| 95 % CIb
|
p-valuec
| ORa
| 95 % CId
|
p-valuec
| |
Mother’s age at delivery | ||||||
<20 | 1.00 | 1.00 | ||||
20–29 | 0.63 | [0.37, 1.08] | 0.091 | 0.51 |
[0.29, 0.87]
|
0.015
|
30–39 | 0.60 | [0.34, 1.06] | 0.079 | 0.47 |
[0.27, 0.83]
|
0.010
|
40–49 | 0.45 | [0.22, 0.93] | 0.030 | 0.32 |
[0.16, 0.64]
|
0.001
|
Marital status/Decision in health care | ||||||
Never Married/divorced/separated/widowed | 1.00 | 1.00 | ||||
Married/partnered, not involved in decision | 1.67 | [1.12, 2.50] | 0.012 | 1.69 |
[1.17, 2.44]
|
0.005
|
Married/partnered, involved in decision | 1.07 | [0.74, 1.53] | 0.722 | 1.11 | [0.79, 1.55] | 0.525 |
Mother's education | ||||||
No education | 1.00 | |||||
Primary | 1.17 | [0.84, 1.61] | 0.353 | |||
Secondary/higher | 1.24 | [0.75, 2.08] | 0.401 | |||
Wanted last child | ||||||
Wanted child | 1.00 | |||||
Wanted child but later | 1.03 | [0.78, 1.35] | 0.839 | |||
Wanted no more child | 0.89 | [0.62, 1.28] | 0.534 | |||
Antenatal visits during pregnancy | ||||||
Less than four | 1.00 | |||||
Four and more | 1.18 | [0.91, 1.53] | 0.217 | |||
Received tetanus injections before birth | ||||||
No | 1.00 | |||||
Yes | 1.24 | [0.88, 1.74] | 0.213 | |||
Delivery by caesarean section | ||||||
No | 1.00 | |||||
Yes | 0.78 | [0.54, 1.11] | 0.164 | |||
Place of delivery | ||||||
Not at health facility | 1.00 | 1.00 | ||||
At health facility | 2.80 | [2.07, 3.79] | <0.001 | 2.97 |
[2.28, 3.87]
|
<0.001
|
Mother insured | ||||||
No | 1.00 | |||||
Yes | 1.17 | [0.87, 1.58] | 0.284 | |||
Getting medical help for self: getting money needed for treatment | ||||||
Big problem | 1.00 | |||||
Not a big problem | 0.91 | [0.71, 1.15] | 0.424 | |||
Place of residence | ||||||
Urban | 1.00 | 1.00 | ||||
Rural | 1.02 | [0.64, 1.64] | 0.922 | 1.04 | [0.66, 1.62] | 0.857 |
Wealth index | ||||||
Poorest | 1.00 | 1.00 | ||||
Poorer | 1.39 | [0.96, 2.01] | 0.084 | 1.46 |
[1.01, 2.09]
|
0.040
|
Middle | 1.10 | [0.75, 1.62] | 0.632 | 1.14 | [0.78, 1.66] | 0.488 |
Richer | 1.37 | [0.92, 2.03] | 0.120 | 1.42 | [0.97, 2.08] | 0.067 |
Richest | 2.07 | [1.23, 3.47] | 0.005 | 2.04 |
[1.27, 3.29]
|
0.003
|
Region | ||||||
Kigali city | 1.00 | |||||
South | 1.60 | [0.90, 2.84] | 0.108 | 1.53 | [0.89, 2.63] | 0.119 |
West | 0.54 | [0.28, 1.02] | 0.058 | 0.51 |
[0.27, 0.95]
|
0.036
|
North | 1.69 | [0.91, 3.14] | 0.093 | 1.57 | [0.88, 2.81] | 0.125 |
East | 0.69 | [0.37, 1.30] | 0.250 | 0.62 | [0.34, 1.14] | 0.129 |