Introduction
Methods
Gender analysis and the gender division of labour in healthcare
Gender and wage data
Country selection and grouping
Country | Survey participants reporting wage-related information | |
---|---|---|
Total workforce (n) | Health workforce (n) | |
Lower-middle-income countries (LMIC): GNI per capita $1 006 to $3 955 | ||
Angola | 924 | 35 |
India | 31 382 | 377 |
Indonesia | 16 703 | 315 |
Ukraine | 34 803 | 1 567 |
Vietnam | 4 055 | 14 |
Sub-total | 87 867 | 2 308 |
Upper-middle-income countries (UMIC): GNI per capita $3 956 to $12 235 | ||
Argentina | 56 212 | 1735 |
Azerbaijan | 3 460 | 93 |
Belarus | 46 849 | 1 663 |
Brazil | 74 160 | 2 907 |
Colombia | 7 614 | 392 |
Kazakhstan | 23 194 | 676 |
Mexico | 26 111 | 762 |
Paraguay | 4 475 | 96 |
Russian Federation | 14 262 | 632 |
South Africa | 35 856 | 774 |
Sub-total | 292 193 | 9 730 |
High-income countries (HIC): GNI per capita $12 236 or more | ||
Belgium | 41 050 | 2 901 |
Chile | 9 413 | 439 |
Czech Republic | 18 695 | 1 117 |
Finland | 29 184 | 2 233 |
Germany | 185 498 | 12 465 |
Hungary | 13 972 | 640 |
Netherlands | 207 929 | 12 227 |
Spain | 29 637 | 1 319 |
United Kingdom | 46 393 | 2 233 |
United States | 9 063 | 670 |
Sub-total | 590 834 | 36 244 |
Total | 970 894 | 48 282 |
Gender, occupation and health worker wages
Clinical, technical or managerial occupations | Allied, caregiving or associate occupations | |
---|---|---|
Traditionally male-dominated | Traditionally female-dominated | |
1. Health service managers | 6. Nursing ad midwifery professionals | 12. Carers in health services |
1 342 health service manager | 2 221 nursing professionals | 5 321 healthcare assistance |
1 343 aged care service manager | 2 222 midwifery professionals | 5 322 home-based personal care workers |
2. Medical doctors | 7. Nursing and midwifery associate professionals | 5 329 personal care workers in health services not elsewhere classified |
2 211 generalist medical practitioners | 3 221 nursing associate professionals | 13. Traditional and complementary medicine professionals |
2 212 specialist medical practitioners | 3 222 midwifery associate professionals | 2 230 traditional and complementary medicine professionals |
3. Dentists | 8. Community health workers | 3 230 traditional and complementary medicine associate professionals |
2 261 dentists | 3 253 community health workers | 14. Paramedical practitioners |
4. Pharmacists | 9. Other health associate professionals | 2 240 paramedical practitioners |
2 262 pharmacists | 3 251 dental assistants and therapists | 15. Allied health staff |
5. Medical and pharmaceutical technicians | 3 254 dispensing opticians | 2 263 environmental and occupational health and hygiene professionals |
3 211 medical imaging and therapeutic equipment technicians | 3 255 physiotherapy technicians and assistants | 2 264 physiotherapists |
3 212 medical and pathology laboratory technicians | 3 256 medical assistants | 2 265 dieticians and nutritionists |
3 213 pharmaceutical technicians and assistants | 3 257 environmental and occupational health inspectors and associates | 2 266 audiologists and speech therapists |
3 214 medical and dental prosthetic technicians | 3 258 ambulance workers | 2 267 optometrists and ophthalmic opticians |
3 259 health associate professionals not elsewhere classified | 2 269 health professionals not elsewhere classified | |
10. Counselling and social work | ||
2 635 counselling and social work | ||
11. Administration and medical records | ||
3 344 medical secretary | ||
3 252 medical records and health information technicians |
Analysis
Results
Results | Year of analysis | AAPC | ||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
2006 | 2007 | 2008 | 2009 | 2010 | 2011 | 2012 | 2013 | 2014 | ||
Gender ratio (%, n) | ||||||||||
Support and allied healthcare | ||||||||||
HIC | 0.80 (5 573) | 0.78 (4 904) | 0.79 (7 581) | 0.79 (3 616) | 0.82 (4 571) | 0.82 (4 983) | 0.83 (4 521) | 0.82 (3 968) | 0.82 (5 973) | 0.7* |
UMIC | 0.57 (280) | 0.70 (852) | 0.68 (1 220) | 0.66 (788) | 0.71 (1 105) | 0.81 (2 220) | 0.81 (2 456) | 0.80 (1 468) | 0.80 (1 291) | 3.9* |
LMIC | 0.67 (7) | 0.67 (28) | 0.47 (72) | 0.53 (142) | 0.70 (945) | 0.72 (992) | 0.70 (603) | 0.72 (615) | 2.8 | |
Clinical and technical healthcare | ||||||||||
HIC | 0.68 (1 162) | 0.74 (763) | 0.72 (1 317) | 0.67 (912) | 0.71 (756) | 0.73 (924) | 0.73 (741) | 0.78 (598) | 0.75 (930) | 1.1 |
UMIC | 0.50 (93) | 0.45 (421) | 0.54 (691) | 0.42 (650) | 0.57 (820) | 0.63 (1 315) | 0.68 (1 254) | 0.68 (683) | 0.70 (614) | 5.8* |
LMIC | 0.36 (10) | 0.33 (27) | 0.27 (44) | 0.37 (113) | 0.57 (698) | 0.62 (631) | 0.54 (441) | 0.57 (306) | 4.5 | |
All healthcare | ||||||||||
HIC | 0.73 (6 735) | 0.75 (5 667) | 0.74 (8 898) | 0.71 (4 628) | 0.76 (5 327) | 0.76 (5 907) | 0.77 (5 262) | 0.79 (4 566) | 0.79 (6 903) | 1.1* |
UMIC | 0.52 (373) | 0.50 (1 273) | 0.57 (1 911) | 0.47 (1 438) | 0.60 (1 925) | 0.68 (3 535) | 0.71 (3 710) | 0.72 (2 151) | 0.73 (1 905) | 5.6* |
LMIC | 0.41 (17) | 0.36 (55) | 0.30 (116) | 0.41 (255) | 0.60 (1 643) | 0.65 (1 623) | 0.58 (1 044) | 0.62 (921) | 6.4 | |
General workforce | ||||||||||
HIC | 0.47 (137 408) | 0.42 (109 434) | 0.40 (178 940) | 0.42 (87 713) | 0.41 (90 844) | 0.43 (100 617) | 0.43 (84 755) | 0.44 (75 334) | 0.43 (101 321) | 0 |
UMIC | 0.40 (14 109) | 0.42 (37 369) | 0.45 (79 430) | 0.36 (46 728) | 0.44 (61 254) | 0.49 (121 838) | 0.53 (114 178) | 0.53 (67 127) | 0.54 (48 887) | 4.3* |
LMIC | 0.20 (3 154) | 0.24 (938) | 0.19 (5 967) | 0.23 (8 731) | 0.22 (17 188) | 0.41 (72 928) | 0.44 (58 797) | 0.39 (42 214) | 0.41 (31 209) | 11.8* |
Gender wage gap (mean, standard deviation) | ||||||||||
Support and allied healthcare | ||||||||||
HIC | 0.10 (0.14) | 0.18 (0.26) | 0.17 (0.26) | 0.22 (0.28) | 0.27 (0.46) | 0.21 (0.30) | 0.22 (0.33) | 0.23 (0.35) | 0.18 (0.39) | 15.4 |
UMIC | 0.14 (0.39) | − 0.01 (0.01) | − 0.11 (0.34) | 0.05 (0.13) | 0.33 (0.94) | 0.21 (0.47) | 0.39 (1.31) | 0.18 (0.48) | 0.36 (0.87) | 14.9* |
LMIC | 0.95 (1.14) | 0.80 (1.83) | 0.17 (0.39) | 0.73 (2.05) | 0.61 (2.48) | 0.51 (1.40) | 0.80 (2.27) | 0.21 (0.87) | 4.8 | |
Clinical and technical healthcare | ||||||||||
HIC | 0.38 (0.51) | 0.27 (0.42) | 0.33 (0.49) | 0.40 (0.50) | 0.53 (0.81) | 0.45 (0.74) | 0.48 (0.61) | 0.27 (0.44) | 0.23 (0.45) | 0.6 |
UMIC | − 0.03 (0.08) | 0.25 (0.58) | 0.30 (0.62) | 0.24 (0.58) | 0.36 (0.83) | 0.26 (0.52) | 0.17 (0.49) | 0.50 (1.21) | 0.54 (1.20) | 11.3* |
LMIC | 0.81 (1.32) | − 1.01 (1.55) | 0.23 (0.34) | 0.40 (1.10) | 0.24 (0.81) | 0.36 (0.73) | 0.51 (1.52) | 0.43 (1.44) | 3.9 | |
All healthcare | ||||||||||
HIC | 0.26 (0.38) | 0.24 (0.36) | 0.25 (0.39) | 0.29 (0.38) | 0.38 (0.63) | 0.33 (0.50) | 0.34 (0.48) | 0.26 (0.41) | 0.24 (0.51) | 1 |
UMIC | 0.09 (0.25) | 0.15 (0.38) | 0.12 (0.32) | 0.23 (0.58) | 0.37 (0.97) | 0.26 (0.56) | 0.31 (1.00) | 0.36 (1.05) | 0.47 (1.14) | 20.7* |
LMIC | 0.87 (1.22) | 0.27 (0.74) | 0.20 (0.39) | 0.54 (1.78) | 0.47 (1.75) | 0.47 (1.13) | 0.70 (2.71) | 0.36 (1.39) | 1.1 | |
General workforce | ||||||||||
HIC | 0.21 (0.29) | 0.22 (0.34) | 0.21 (0.34) | 0.23 (0.33) | 0.24 (0.45) | 0.22 (0.41) | 0.24 (0.39) | 0.23 (0.39) | 0.20 (0.42) | 0.2 |
UMIC | 0.09 (0.26) | 0.16 (0.45) | 0.14 (0.37) | 0.21 (0.52) | 0.29 (0.68) | 0.23 (0.55) | 0.33 (0.81) | 0.34 (0.84) | 0.33 (0.79) | 16.7* |
LMIC | 0.41 (1.28) | 0.28 (0.65) | 0.18 (0.39) | 0.35 (1.10) | 0.47 (1.45) | 0.45 (1.40) | 0.49 (1.73) | 0.58 (1.97) | 0.52 (1.67) | 9.2* |
Healthcare occupation wage ratio (mean for women, mean for men) | ||||||||||
Support and allied healthcare | ||||||||||
HIC | 0.97 (0.92,1.02) | 0.94 (0.85,1.03) | 0.94 (0.85,1.03) | 0.94 (0.82,1.05) | 0.92 (0.78,1.07) | 0.90 (0.79,1.00) | 0.92 (0.80,1.03) | 0.98 (0.86,1.11) | 0.87 (0.78,0.96) | − 0.6 (− 1.3, − 0.1) |
UMIC | 1.05 (0.97,1.13) | 0.98 (0.98,0.98) | 0.96 (1.01,0.91) | 0.88 (0.85,0.90) | 0.92 (0.74,1.10) | 0.84 (0.75,0.95) | 1.07 (0.81,1.33) | 0.87 (0.78,0.95) | 0.90 (0.70,1.10) | − 1.3 (− 4.2*, 1.0) |
LMIC | 0.85 (0.08,1.62) | 0.39 (1.13,0.64) | 0.40 (0.36,0.44) | 0.34 (0.15,0.54) | 0.78 (0.44,1.13) | 0.51 (0.34,0.69) | 0.66 (0.22,1.11) | 0.46 (0.41,0.52) | − 1.4 (8.2, − 3.2) | |
Clinical and technical healthcare | ||||||||||
HIC | 1.47 (1.13,1.83) | 1.40 (1.18,1.62) | 1.40 (1.12,1.68) | 1.14 (0.86,1.43) | 1.45 (0.93,1.98) | 1.30 (0.92,1.68) | 1.36 (0.93,1.79) | 1.31 (1.10,1.52) | 1.45 (1.26,1.63) | − 0.4 (− 0.1, − 0.6) |
UMIC | 1.32 (1.34,1.29) | 1.34 (1.16,1.54) | 1.28 (1.05,1.50) | 1.23 (1.07,1.40) | 1.15 (0.90,1.40) | 0.94 (0.80,1.09) | 1.07 (0.97,1.18) | 1.14 (0.77,1.52) | 1.22 (0.07,1.54) | − 2.9* (− 6.8*, − 0.2) |
LMIC | 0.70 (0.23,1.18) | 0.40 (0.53,0.26) | 0.42 (0.36,0.47) | 0.76 (0.57,0.95) | 0.76 (0.66,0.86) | 0.70 (0.55,0.86) | 0.65 (0.43,0.87) | 0.74 (0.53,0.94) | 5.4 (7.9, 7.6) | |
All healthcare | ||||||||||
HIC | 1.11 (0.94,1.27) | 1.03 (0.89,1.17) | 0.04 (0.88,1.19) | 1.00 (0.83,1.17) | 0.04 (0.80,1.28) | 1.01 (0.81,1.20) | 1.03 (0.82,1.23) | 1.04 (0.89,1.20) | 0.96 (0.83,1.09) | − 0.9 (− 1.1, − 0.7) |
UMIC | 1.12 (1.07,1.18) | 1.12 (1.03,1.21) | 1.10 (1.03,1.17) | 1.06 (0.92,1.19) | 1.03 (0.79,1.26) | 0.90 (0.76,1.03) | 1.05 (0.86,1.25) | 1.00 (0.78,1.22) | 1.01 (0.70,1.32) | − 1.6 (− 5.0*, 0.8) |
LMIC | 0.65 (0.48,0.83) | 0.77 (0.18,1.35) | 0.41 (0.35,0.47) | 0.41 (0.36,0.45) | 0.54 (0.34,0.75) | 0.75 (0.52,0.98) | 0.59 (0.41,0.78) | 0.64 (0.29,0.98) | 0.56 (0.44,0.68) | 0.3 (3.2, 0.0) |