1 Introduction
2 Molecular biology of FGF/FGFR signaling
2.1 Receptors
2.2 Ligands
2.3 FGF/FGFR interaction and function
2.4 Activation of signaling
2.5 Inhibition of signaling
3 FGF/FGFR aberrant signaling in human disease
3.1 Inherited syndromes
Gene chromosome aberration | Syndrome (OMIM number) | Clinical features | Examples of cancers in which an aberration is seen | Reference(s) |
---|---|---|---|---|
FGFR1 (Chr 8p) | ||||
P252R | Pfeiffer syndrome, type I (01600) |
Type 1 “classic” Pfeiffer syndrome: mild manifestations, ibrachycephaly, midface hypoplasia, finger and toe abnormalities, normal intelligence, and generally good outcome | None reported | |
Y372C | Osteoglophonic dysplasia (166250) | Craniosynostosis, telechanthus, facial hypoplasia, prominent supraorbital ridge, depressed nasal bridge, and rhizomelic dwarfism | None reported | |
FGFR2 (Chr 10q) S252W or P253R (most common) | Apert syndrome (101200) | Craniosynostosis, midface hypoplasia, syndactyly of the hands and feet, tendency to fusion of bony structures, varying mental deficiency, and hearing loss. Increased number and maturation of pre-osteoblasts | Endometrial cancers (S252W and P253R) | |
Multiple mutations reported [95] | Crouzon syndrome (123500) | Craniosynostosis, hypertelorism, exophthalmos, external strabismus, parrot-beaked nose, short upper lip, hypoplastic maxilla, and relative mandibular prognathism | Gastric cancer (S267P) | |
S252L, S267P | Pfeiffer syndrome, type 2 and 3 (101600) |
Type 2: cloverleaf skull with “Pfeiffer” hands and feet, ankylosis of the elbows. Type 3: similar to Type 2, but without cloverleaf skull. Early demise is characteristic of types 2 and 3 | Gastric cancer (S267P) | |
FGFR3 (Chr 4p) | ||||
G380R, S279C G375C | Achondroplasia (100800) | Most frequent form of dwarfism: short stature, rhizomelic shortening of limbs, frontal bossing, midface hypoplasia, exaggerated lumbar lordosis, limitation of elbow extension, genu varum, and trident hand | Bladder, prostate, and testicular cancers (G380R) | |
R248C, S249C, R373C, Ter807G/R/C, G370C, N540L, Q485R | Thanatophoric dysplasia I (TDI) (187600) | Severe dwarfism; usually fatal in the neonatal period. Curved short femurs with or without cloverleaf skull | Bladder (R248C, S249C, G370C), Prostate (S249C), Lung squamous (R248C, S249C), Head and Neck (S249C), Multiple Myeloma (R248C) | |
K650E | Thanatophoric dysplasia II (187601) | Severe dwarfism; usually fatal in the neonatal period. Straight, short femurs with cloverleaf skull | Multiple Myeloma, Bladder, Glioblastoma | |
N540K/T/S I538V, K650N/Q, L652Q, Y278C S84L | Hypochondroplasia (146000) | Dwarfism, lumbar lordosis, short and broad bones, and caudal narrowing of the interpediculate distance of the lumbar spine. Some resemblance to achondroplasia, but is much milder | Renal cell carcinoma (K650N) | |
P250R | Muenke syndrome (602849) | Coronal synostosis, macrocephaly, midface hypoplasia, developmental delay. Variable phenotype | None reported |
3.2 Somatic aberrations in benign conditions
3.3 Somatic aberrations in malignancies
Activating aberrations | Examples of disease(s) (most common) | Reference(s) |
---|---|---|
Amplifications | ||
FGFR1 | Squamous cell carcinoma of lung, breast adenocarcinoma, bladder urothelial carcinoma, head and neck squamous cell carcinoma | |
FGFR2 | Gastric adenocarcinoma | |
FGFR3 | Uterine carcinosarcoma, ovarian cystadenocarcinoma, sarcoma | |
FGFR4 | Kidney, renal clear cell carcinoma | [56] |
Mutations | ||
FGFR1 | Stomach adenocarcinoma, melanoma | |
FGFR2 | Uterine (endometrial carcinoma), melanomaa
| |
FGFR3 | High-grade bladder cancer, cervical cancer | |
FGFR4 | Rhabdomyosarcoma, melanoma | |
Rearrangements | ||
FGFR1 | 8p11 myeloproliferative syndrome/fusions partners: BCR, ZNF198, CEP110, FGFR1OP1, FGFR1OP2, HERVK, TRIM24, LRRFIP1, MYO18A, CPSF6
| [63] |
Rhabdomyosarcoma/fusions partner: FOXO1
| [64] | |
Glioblastoma/fusions partner: TACC1
| [68] | |
Salivary gland/fusions partner: PLAG1
| [139] | |
FGFR2 | Cholangiocarcinoma/fusions partners: AHCYL1,BICC1
| |
Breast/fusions partners: AFF3, CCDC6, CASP7
| [141] | |
FGFR3 | Multiple myeloma/fusions partner: MMSET
| [65] |
Glioblastoma, bladder carcinoma, head and neck squamous cell carcinoma/fusions partner: TACC3
|
Type of cancer | Approximate frequency | Approximate frequencies by FGF receptora
| Comments | References |
---|---|---|---|---|
Bladder urothelial carcinoma | 35 % | FGFR1 14 %FGFR3 19 % FGFR2 3 %FGFR4 6 % | FGFR1 almost all amplifications FGFR3 mostly amplification and mutations | |
Lung, squamous cell carcinoma | 27 % | FGFR1 18 %FGFR3 4 % FGFR2 4 %FGFR4 2 % | FGFR1: Almost all are gene amplifications | |
Uterine corpus endometrioid carcinoma | 24 % | FGFR1 7 %FGFR3 5 % FGFR2 14 %FGFR4 4 % | FGFR1 approximately 50 % amplification and 50 % mutations FGFR2 almost all mutations | |
Gastric adenocarcinoma | 23 % | FGFR1 6 %FGFR3 4 % FGFR2 10 %FGFR4 5 % | Approximately 50 % amplifications/deletions and 50 % mutations | |
Breast adenocarcinoma | 20 % | FGFR1 14 % FGFR3 2 % FGFR2 3 %FGFR4 2 % | Almost all are amplifications | |
Melanoma | 20 % | FGFR1 5 %FGFR3 5 % FGFR2 11 %FGFR4 5 % | FGFR2 mostly mutations | [56] |
Ovarian serous cystadenocarcinoma | 20 % | FGFR1 5 %FGFR3 8 % FGFR2 4 %FGFR4 4 % | Almost all amplifications, rare mutations | |
Head and neck squamous cell carcinoma | 17 % | FGFR1 10 %FGFR3 4 % FGFR2 1 %FGFR4 1 % | Majority of amplification with about 20 % deletion and mutations (each), and few fusions | |
Lung, adenocarcinoma | 14 % | FGFR1 6 %FGFR3 2 % FGFR2 4 %FGFR4 4 % | Approximately 50 % amplifications and 50 % mutations, with predominance of FGFR1 amplification | |
Prostate adenocarcinoma | 11 % | FGFR1 6 %FGFR3 1 % FGFR2 3 %FGFR4 1 % | Approximately 50 % amplification, 50 % deletions, mutations rare | |
Renal cell carcinoma, clear cell | 11 % | FGFR1 2 %FGFR3 1 % FGFR2 < 1 %FGFR4 7 % | Majority amplifications | |
Sarcoma | 10 % | FGFR1 4 %FGFR3 4 % FGFR2 1 %FGFR4 2 % | Majority amplifications (n = 2 deletions) | |
Renal papillary cell | 9 % | FGFR1 4 %FGFR3 2 % FGFR2 1 %FGFR4 3 % | All mutations, only 2 cases had amplification | [56] |
Colorectal adenocarcinoma | 8 % | FGFR1 5 %FGFR3 1 % FGFR2 1 %FGFR4 1 % | FGFR1 about 60 % amplification, rest mutations/deletion | |
Glioblastoma | 6 % | FGFR1 0 %FGFR3 2 % FGFR2 3 %FGFR4 1 % | FGFR2 mostly deletions | |
Adenoid cystic carcinoma | 5 % | FGFR1 3 %FGFR3 0 % FGFR2 0 %FGFR4 2 % | FGFR1 amplification and deletion (1 each) FGFR4 mutation (n = 1) | |
Brain, lower grade gliomas | 5 % | FGFR1 0 %FGFR3 1 % FGFR2 3 %FGFR4 1 % | Most are deletions, with few amplifications and mutations | |
Acute myeloid leukemia | 1 % | FGFR1 < 1 %FGFR3 0 % FGFR2 0 %FGFR4 < 1 % | 1 amplification, 1 deletion, no mutations | |
Thyroid carcinoma | <1 % | FGFR1 0 %FGFR3 < 1 % FGFR2 < 1 %FGFR4 < 1 % | Two amplifications, one mutation | [56] |
Type of cancer | Approximate frequency | Approximate frequencies by FGF liganda
| Comments | Reference(s) |
---|---|---|---|---|
Head and neck squamous cell carcinoma | 54 % | FGF3 28 %FGF12 19 % FGF4 28 %FGF10 6 % FGF19 28 %FGF23 5 % | Virtually all amplifications | [56] |
Bladder urothelial carcinoma | 47 % | FGF3 13 %FGF1711% FGF4 12 %FGF10 9 % FGF19 13 %FGF20 9 % | FGF3, FGF4, and FGF19 co-amplified in approximately 12 % of cases FGF17 and 20 mostly deletions | |
Stomach cancer | 47 % | FGF3 7 %FGF12 8 % FGF4 7 %FGF13 6 % FGF19 7 %FGF14 5 % FGF10 9 %FGF17 5 % | FGF3/4/19 co-amplified in 7 % of cases FGF17 and FGF20 both deleted in 2 % of cases | |
Lung, squamous cell carcinoma | 46 % | FGF3 12 %FGF12 26 % FGF4 12 %FGF10 7 % FGF19 13 % | Virtually all are gene amplifications | |
Cervical cancerb
| 42 % | FGF12 25 % | All are amplifications | [56] |
Lung, adenocarcinoma | 39 % | FGF10 11 % FGF17 7 % FGF20 7 % | FGF10 mostly amplifications FGF17 and FGF20 mostly deletions FGF3/4/19 co-amplified in 4 % of cases | |
Melanoma | 38 % | FGF3 8 % FGF4 6 % FGF19 6 % | FGF3/4/19 co-amplified in about 7 % of cases | [56] |
Ovarian cystadenocarcinoma | 38 % | FGF3 5 %FGF6 5 % FGF4 4 %FGF23 6 % FGF19 4 %FGF12 13 % | Virtually all amplifications | |
Breast adenocarcinoma | 35 % | FGF3 15 %FGF17 6 % FGF4 15 %FGF20 5 % FGF19 15 % | High frequency of co-amplification of FGF3/4/19. Similar results with TCGA, Nature 2012 study (n = 482) | |
Adenoid cystic carcinoma | 27 % | FGF22 10 % All others 5 %or less | Approximately 50 % deletions and 50 % amplifications, rare mutations | |
Prostate adenocarcinoma | 22 % | FGF17 8 % FGF20 5 % | Majority are deletions, about 5 % cases are co-deleted FGF17/20 | |
Colorectal adenocarcinoma | 17 % | All 5 % or less | Majority of mutations, less amplifications and rare deletion |
3.3.1 FGFR alterations
3.3.2 FGF alterations
3.3.3 FGFR rearrangements
4 FGF/FGFR signaling inhibitors and cancer therapy
4.1 FDA approved drugs that target FGFR
Drug | Company/type of drug | Examples of target(s) | FDA-approved Yes/No | Examples of clinical development/trials/phase | References |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
ARQ087 | ArQule/ selective FGFRs inhibitor | FGFR1/2/3 | No | Phase I Dose Escalation Study | [159] |
AZD4547 | Astrazeneca/ selective FGFRs inhibitor | FGFR1/2/3 | No | Phase II Part of Lung-MAP | |
Brivanib (BMS-540215) | BMS/ dual kinase inhibitor | FGFR1/2/3, VEGFR | No | Phase III hepatocellular; did not meet endpoint of survival non-inferiority | |
Danusertib (PHA-739358) | Nerviano Medical Sciences/multi-kinase inhibitor | FGFR1, BCR-Abl, c- RET, Aurora | No | Phase II in unselected prostate cancer showed minimal activity | |
Debio1347 | Debiopharm/ selective FGFRs inhibitors | FGFR1/2/3 | No | Phase I (selecting patient with FGFRs alterations) | |
Dovitinib (TKI 258) | Novartis/ multi-kinase inhibitor | FGFR1/3, PDGFR, VEGFR, Flt3, c-kit | No | Phase III: renal cell carcinoma (failed to meet the primary endpoint, unselected patients) | |
FP-1039 (GSK3052230) | GlaxoSmithKline/ FGFsFGFs trap agent | Sequesters | No | Phase I (selecting patients with deregulated Fibroblast Growth Factor (FGF) Pathway Signaling) | [71] |
JNJ-42756493 | Janssen/ selective FGFRs inhibitors | FGFR1/2/3/4 | No | Phase I | |
Lenvatinib (E7080) | Esai/ multi-kinase inhibitor | PDGFR | Yes | Phase III:FDA- approved for thyroid cancer (Feb 2015) | |
Lucitanib (E3810) | Clovis/ dual kinase inhibitor | FGFR1/2 and VEGFR1/2/3 | No | Phase II: ER-positive breast cancer | |
MGFR1877S (RG744) | Genentech/ monoclonal antibody | Anti-FGFR3 | No | Phase I | [176] |
MK2461 | Merck/ multi-kinase inhibitor | FGFR1/2/3, PDGFR, c-Met, Flt1/3, Ron, Mer | No | Phase II | [177] |
Nintedanib (BIBF1120) | Boehringer Ingelheim/ multi-kinase inhibitor | FGFR1/2/3, VEGFR, PDGFR, flt3 | Yes (not in cancer) | Phase III: ovarian, lung, FDA-approved for idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis (Oct 2014) | |
NVP-BGJ398 | Novartis/ selective FGFRs inhibitor | FGFR1/2/3 | No | Phase II | |
Pazopanib | GlaxoSmithKline/ multi-kinase inhibitor | FGFR1/3, VEGFR1/2/3, PDGFR, c-Kit | Yes | Approved for advanced renal cell carcinoma and soft tissue sarcoma | |
Ponatinib | Ariad/ multi-kinase inhibitor | FGFR1-4, BCR-Abl, PDGFR, VEGFR | Yes | Approved for T315I-positive chronic myelogenous leukemia and Ph-positive acute lymphoblastic leukemia | |
Regorafenib | Bayer/ multi-kinase inhibitor | FGFR1/2, RET, VEGFR1/2/3 KIT, PDGFRs | Yes | Approved for advanced GIST and colorectal cancer (no FGFR selection) | |
TAS120 | Taiho Oncology/ selective FGFRs inhibitors | FGFR1/2/3/4 | No | Phase I/II (selecting patient with FGFRs alterations) |