Gambling expenditure by game type among weekly gamblers in Finland

Early research into the adverse consequences of gambling was focused on the presence of pathological or problem gambling, but recently it has become commonplace to take a broader view on gambling harm [1, 2]. Some game types, for example, slot machine gambling, casino games, poker, betting games, bingo and/or scratch games have been associated with gambling-related problems (e.g. [3‐8]). On the other hand, it has been suggested, that some game types may be more like indicators of unhealthy gambling involvement, rather than critical factors associated with gambling-related problems [9, 10]. Gambling expenditure, one of the indicators of unhealthy gambling involvement, shows the strongest association with gambling-related harm as many of the negative impacts of excessive gambling are due to financial problems [1, 2, 11‐14]. Despite this association, gambling problem or even gambling-related financial harm are not synonymous with excessive expenditure [15, 16]. For harm prevention and minimization purposes it is essential that we build our understanding of different game types and associated harms. There is as yet very little research on gambling expenditure by game type.

Finland has one of the highest per capita gambling expenditure rates in Europe [17]. For research purposes gambling expenditure is usually assessed by questions concerning wins and losses, or most typically by direct questions on spending; the latter is the most common way [18]. However, it has been suggested that in order to gain a clearer picture of gambling-related harm, gambling expenditure should be examined in relation to the gambler’s net income [2]. We use the dual measures of weekly gambling expenditure and gambling expenditure in relation to the gambler’s net income.

Gambling expenditure is higher among men than women [19‐23]. Furthermore, low education and unemployment are associated with higher gambling expenditure [20, 24, 25]. Overall, people with high monthly gambling expenditure relative to net income, and men in particular, are more likely to be socio-economically vulnerable individuals [26].

Gambling frequency is typically assessed by asking people how many times they have engaged in gambling within a certain period of time, or by asking their average frequency of participation within a certain time frame [18]. A high frequency of gambling, participation in multiple game types and high gambling severity are associated with high total expenditure [27‐29]. Although high gambling frequency is associated with gambling harms, only some frequent gamblers experience harm [30]. On the other hand, even occasional gamblers may experience harm [11, 13, 31].

There are various forms of gambling and their nature varies [32]. A simple classification distinguishes between lottery-style and wagering-style games. Another classification is based on game provider [18]. Finland is one of the countries where games are provided by a government regulated monopoly, although non-monopoly games are available online. Game types can also be classified based on means of access, such as direct face-to-face gambling or remote access [18]. Another access-based classification distinguishes between online and land-based games [32]. Furthermore, game types are classified based on whether their outcome is determined by chance, skill or a combination of chance and skill [33]. Games such as slot machines, lotteries, scratch cards, bingos, roulettes and dice games are fundamentally chance-based games, whereas poker and blackjack, for instance, also include elements of skill [34]. Another way to categorize game types is to look at their structural characteristics, which are event frequency, event duration, bet frequency and pay out interval [5]. In population studies, a common way of inquiring about participation in different gambling types is to use a list of available game types [18].

There is gender differences in game type preferences: men tend to favour skill-based games, whereas women prefer games of chance [35]. Game type preferences were highly gendered in Sweden, although men in Sweden have decreased their participation in games of strategy and increased participation in games of chance in public spaces [36]. In any assessment of gambling participation, it is therefore important to consider both the number of different game types played and the frequency of gambling [7, 9, 10, 46]. Playing multiple game types is associated with online gambling, and among females in particular online gambling may be related to higher gambling expenditure and at-risk and problem gambling [37].

In 2015, 23% of Finns gambled only one game type, predominantly weekly lottery games [20]. It is beneficial to take a broader view on gambling participation and also consider overall gambling frequency, gambling mode and number of game types gambled. Furthermore, an examination of different game types played by active gamblers and more occasional gamblers is a novel way of studying patterns of gambling expenditure and relative expenditure concurrently.

Male gender, lower education level, higher gambling frequency and higher number of game types increased both WGE and RGE, which is in line with previous research (e.g. [20‐22]). Our results also indicated that younger age decreased WGE, but increased RGE. This may be partly explained by lower overall income, since low income in general [15, 16] is a risk factor for excessive gambling it can be seen as possibly posing greater harm to this specific age group, such as indebtedness that may in turn increase harmful gambling.

Overall gambling frequency was the strongest explanatory factor of both WGE and RGE, which supports the results of previous research [9]. Weekly horse race betting, non-monopoly gambling and online poker had the greatest increasing effect on expenditure, but scratch games, betting games and daily low-paced lottery games also contributed significantly to overall expenditure. Furthermore, betting games and online poker were associated with higher expenditure even when they were played less often than weekly. Our results suggest, in certain circumstances high WGE on these particular game types may be seen as indicators of unhealthy gambling involvement, as has been previously suggested (e.g.[9, 10]).

Some studies indicate, that sports betting is associated with problem gambling [8, 45] while some studies indicate that it is not [7, 10]. Sports betting and poker can be viewed as a lifestyle practice, often a regular feature of social interaction and leisure time [43]. Gamblers may be inclined to take unnecessary risks to demonstrate their “knowledge” of the game and enhance their social esteem. The unique feature of sports betting and poker is competition [43]. Game providers should avoid targeting this group with advertisements that create false notions of expertise [27]. Furthermore, a recent Australian study examined the risk factors for low risk gambling, moderate risk gambling and problem gambling amongst sports betters [44]. Their results indicate, that gambling expenditure, number of accounts with different operators, number of different types of promotions used and gambler’s impulsiveness were significantly higher for all above mentioned risk groups, while age, gender, some normative factors, and particular sports betting variables only applied to those with the highest level of gambling-related problems. These results suggest, that when assessing risk factors for problematic gambling, severity of gambling should be taken into account, when possible, thus different levels of gambling problems should be assessed separately when possible.

Weekly gambling outside the Finnish gambling monopoly had the greatest increasing effect on gambling expenditure. This result must be interpreted with caution, however, since there was only a small number of weekly non-monopoly gamblers. Non-monopoly gamblers tend to be heavy consumers of several game types [5, 6, 45], including monopoly games. In addition, non-monopoly gambling remains as a somewhat indefinite game type category, since it may, in fact, include any number of game types, as well as, any number of player accounts with different international gaming operators. Therefore, it may represent merely a time spent on gambling rather than a certain game type.

Frequent playing of several games is associated with gambling problems [7, 9, 10]. In addition, online problem gamblers are often mixed-mode gamblers who play multiple types of games [47‐49]. The major justification for the Finnish gambling monopoly is that it has the potential to reduce gambling harms, and the updated Lotteries Act furthermore places emphasis on prevention [38]. As in many other countries, Finnish gambling operators have in recent years been working to develop tools for responsible gambling (RG). Recent Finnish surveys indicate that RG tools are used quite rarely and that gamblers’ awareness about these tools must be improved [11, 12].

One of the games that increased gambling expenditure was weekly horse race betting. Based on register data provided by gambling operators, a typical gambler is a middle-age man who gambles seven times a month, spending on average 33 euros a day when gambling [22]. In Finland, online horse race betting seems to be concentrated: most gamblers spend rather small amounts of money, but there is a small group of active bettors who contribute a large proportion of total turnover [22]. Participation and interest in horse racing and betting seems to be a social cross-generational process [50], which is not the case with other types of betting. LaPlante and colleagues studied gambling problems, type of gambling and gambling involvement and noticed that the relationship between both horse race betting and private betting and problem gambling changed when gambling involvement factors were adjusted for [9]. In other words, gambling only these two particular betting games seemed to protect gamblers from problems [7, 9]. In fact, they suggest that engaging in game types including peers might encourage control and preclude excessive gambling [9], which is opposite to the findings for sports betting [43].

Weekly lottery games were not associated with high expenditure, but daily lottery games were. Weekly lottery games are slow pace and sometimes perceived as a ‘soft’ type of game [4], or indeed not even viewed as a form of gambling at all [51]. Nevertheless, there are some addictive features of lottery games that are salient to the psychology of lottery gambling [52]. Recent developments of lottery games have extended gambling frequency from weekly to biweekly and daily gambling, but also changed their geography from regional or national to transnational and gambling mode from land-based to online platforms. These changes have increased the addictiveness of this game type. We suggest that future studies should make a clear distinction between different types of lottery games.

Finland has one of the highest per capita numbers of slot machines in Europe. In our model, weekly slot machine gambling was also associated with higher expenditure, but it was not among the most significant game types. Slot machine gambling is nevertheless associated with gambling-related harms [7, 8, 38, 43, 45]. Moreover, based on the national helpline Peluuri, the primary game types that cause problems among Finnish gamblers are EGMs (69%), betting games (9%), poker (5%) and casino games (5%) [53]. On the other hand, some studies indicate that slot machines are not among the top five game types associated with problem gambling [4, 10].

The results provide useful information about gambling expenditure patterns by game type. At the same time, they underscore the fact that gambling participation needs to be studied in its entirety. This was particularly clear in Figs. 1, 2, which showed that for those gambling at least three game types weekly, WGE and RGE means were similar to the corresponding means for all gamblers. Gambler profiles can be grouped based on gambling participation and the combination of different game types played [46, 54]. A study on gambling clusters indicates that gambling on slot machines, sports betting and playing multiple games are the strongest indicators of gambling problems [46]. These clusters provide useful leads for future studies on game types and gambling expenditure.

There is evidence that high gambling expenditure is associated with gambling-related harms [18, 31, 46, 55, 56]. However, we still have an incomplete picture of what level of expenditure indicates harms. A Finnish study that used the South Oaks Gambling Screen [57] indicates that on average, problem gamblers spend 11.8%, probable pathological gamblers spend 17.3%, and non-problem gamblers spend 1.6% of their monthly net income on gambling [15]. Gender differences have also been reported in the relative amount of income associated with problematic gambling in Finland [16].

Gambling frequency was the strongest indicator of high expenditure, as also suggested in previous studies [7, 9]. However, this study provides some useful information about gambling expenditure patterns by game type. Different game types had different effect sizes on gambling expenditure, and we identified several games types that increase both WGE and RGE. Weekly gambling on horse races and non-monopoly games had the greatest increasing effect on expenditure. Great effort should be made by game providers and policy makers to inform individuals about these particular games and possible harms related to them. In addition, betting games, sports betting and online poker in particular, were associated with higher expenditure even when they were played less often than weekly. Similarly, more active harm-minimizing initiatives are recommended particularly for sports bettors and online poker players. However, different game types also varied according to their popularity, and therefore the extent of potential harms caused by high expenditure also varies on the population level. Studies of gambling problems have found that few gamblers play at high-risk levels, but large proportions gamble at low-risk levels [31, 66, 67]. Therefore, in order to prevent and reduce gambling-related harms, lower risk gamblers should also be targeted in preventive actions. Based on our results, future prevention and harm minimization efforts should be tailored to different game types for greater effectiveness.