Background
Methods
Study areas and study samples
Microsatellite (MS) markers and genotyping
Parameters measured and data analysis
Results
Multiple infections
(a) Asembo (n = 57), Gem (n = 87), Karemo (n = 92) |
p value <0.05 | ||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Locus | Area | % MA
| MAC ± SE | % MA* | MAC* |
Poly-α | Asembo | 59.6 % | 2.22 ± 0.17 | 0.92 | 0.28 |
Gem | 57.0 % | 2.08 ± 0.13 | |||
Karemo | 59.8 % | 1.92 ± 0.10 | |||
Pfg377 | Asembo | 37.5 % | 1.45 ± 0.09 | 0.06 |
0.02
|
Gem | 32.9 % | 1.40 ± 0.06 | |||
Karemo | 20.7 % | 1.24 ± 0.05 | |||
PfPK2 | Asembo | 53.6 % | 1.96 ± 0.15 |
0.01
|
0.01
|
Gem | 45.8 % | 1.87 ± 0.12 | |||
Karemo | 28.1 % | 1.33 ± 0.06 | |||
ADL | Asembo | 46.9 % | 1.70 ± 0.12 | 0.79 | 0.13 |
Gem | 53.9 % | 2.01 ± 0.15 | |||
Karemo | 50.0 % | 1.71 ± 0.09 | |||
EBP | Asembo | 41.2 % | 1.49 ± 0.08 | 0.50 | 0.76 |
Gem | 31.3 % | 1.41 ± 0.07 | |||
Karemo | 36.8 % | 1.45 ± 0.07 | |||
P195 | Asembo | 29.6 % | 1.37 ± 0.08 |
0.00
|
0.01
|
Gem | 22.2 % | 1.27 ± 0.05 | |||
Karemo | 51.7 % | 1.58 ± 0.06 | |||
TAA60 | Asembo | 52.6 % | 1.84 ± 0.13 | 0.75 | 0.41 |
Gem | 45.9 % | 1.69 ± 0.09 | |||
Karemo | 46.0 % | 1.64 ± 0.09 | |||
TAA109 | Asembo | 44.4 % | 1.53 ± 0.08 | 0.50 | 0.64 |
Gem | 35.8 % | 1.62 ± 0.11 | |||
Karemo | 44.0 % | 1.68 ± 0.11 | |||
Overall | Asembo | 87.7 %a
| 2.76 ± 0.16b
|
0.01
| 0.53 |
Gem | 83.7 %a
| 2.55 ± 0.14b
| |||
Karemo | 96.7 %a
| 2.68 ± 0.08b
|
(b) Locus | % MA
| MAC ± SE |
p values | |||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Asembo 2001 | Asembo 2007 | Asembo 2001 | Asembo 2007 | % MA* | MAC* | |
Poly-α | 71.6 % | 59.6 % | 2.40 ± 0.14 | 2.22 ± 0.17 | 0.11 | 0.19 |
Pfg377 | 52.8 % | 37.5 % | 1.67 ± 0.09 | 1.45 ± 0.09 | 0.06 | 0.08 |
PfPK2 | 47.3 % | 53.6 % | 1.74 ± 0.11 | 1.96 ± 0.15 | 0.30 | 0.37 |
ADL | 50.0 % | 46.9 % | 1.54 ± 0.07 | 1.70 ± 0.12 | 0.44 | 0.58 |
EBP | 61.1 % | 41.2 % | 2.10 ± 0.14 | 1.49 ± 0.08 |
0.02
|
0.01
|
P195 | 47.9 % | 29.6 % | 1.62 ± 0.09 | 1.37 ± 0.08 |
0.03
|
0.02
|
TAA60 | 59.5 % | 52.6 % | 1.96 ± 0.12 | 1.84 ± 0.13 | 0.27 | 0.24 |
TAA109 | 76.7 % | 44.4 % | 2.26 ± 0.12 | 1.53 ± 0.08 |
0.01
|
0.01
|
Overall | 95.9 %a
| 87.7 %a
| 3.1 ± 0.12b
| 2.76 ± 0.16b
|
0.03
| 0.16 |
Genetic diversity
(a) Locus | Asembo | Gem | Karemo |
p value | |||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Allele no. and (richness) |
H
e
(SE) | Allele no. and (richness) |
H
e
(SE) | Allele no. and (richness) |
H
e
(SE) | Asembo/Gem | Asembo/Karemo | Gem/Karemo | |
Polya | 16 (15.94) | 0.91 (0.0193) | 17 (16.78) | 0.89 (0.0279) | 19 (18.85) | 0.88 (0.0315) | 0.620 | 0.469 | 0.814 |
Pfg377 | 5 (4.99) | 0.47 (0.0726) | 6 (5.74) | 0.41 (0.0648) | 5 (4.72) | 0.32 (0.059) | 0.472 | 0.073 | 0.316 |
PfPK2 | 10 (10) | 0.85 (0.0243) | 11 (10.44) | 0.82 (0.0209) | 12 (11.32) | 0.84 (0.0221) | 0.353 | 0.749 | 0.530 |
ADL | 12 (12) | 0.88 (0.0177) | 14 (13.71) | 0.90 (0.0114) | 16 (15.28) | 0.91 (0.0089) | 0.205 | 0.075 | 0.550 |
EBP | 8 (8) | 0.82 (0.0562) | 14 (13.4) | 0.88 (0.0388) | 11 (10.84) | 0.83 (0.0232) | 0.426 | 0.886 | 0.312 |
P195a
| 7 (6.99) | 0.74 (0.0249) | 6 (5.83) | 0.65 (0.0206) | 6 (5.99) | 0.74 (0.0209) |
0.005
| 0.957 |
0.003
|
TAA60 | 8 (7.98) | 0.81 (0.0249) | 9 (8.42) | 0.79 (0.0206) | 7 (6.96) | 0.79 (0.0209) | 0.561 | 0.550 | 0.983 |
TAA109 | 9 (8.97) | 0.79 (0.0249) | 12 (11.28) | 0.83 (0.0169) | 14 (13.17) | 0.83 (0.0239) | 0.124 | 0.178 | 0.993 |
Overall | 0.78 (0.0495) | 0.77 (0.0060) | 0.77 (0.0661) | 0.813 | 0.859 | 0.972 |
(b) Locus | Asembo-2001 | Asembo-2007 |
p value | ||
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Allele no. and (richness) |
H
e
(SE) | Allele no. and (richness) |
H
e
(SE) | ||
Poly-α | 17 (16.92) | 0.92 (0.0243) | 16 (15.94) | 0.91 (0.0193) | 0.653 |
Pfg377 | 3 (3.00) | 0.57 (0.0984) | 5 (4.96) | 0.47 (0.0726) | 0.489 |
PfPK2 | 12 (11.92) | 0.83 (0.0497) | 10 (10.00) | 0.85 (0.0243) | 0.752 |
ADL | 14 (13.96) | 0.89 (0.0191) | 12 (12.00) | 0.88 (0.0177) | 0.623 |
EBP | 6 (5.99) | 0.82 (0.0193) | 8 (8.00) | 0.82 (0.0562) | 0.976 |
P195 | 11 (10.91) | 0.75 (0.0241) | 7 (6.99) | 0.74 (0.0249) | 0.733 |
TAA60 | 17 (16.87) | 0.85 (0.0322) | 8 (7.98) | 0.81 (0.0249) | 0.344 |
TAA109 | 11 (10.94) | 0.77 (0.0372) | 9 (8.97) | 0.79 (0.0249) | 0.691 |
Overall | 0.79 (0.0380) | 0.78 (0.0495) | 0.625 |
Pairwise and multilocus LD
(a) Test factor | Areas | ||
---|---|---|---|
Asembo | Gem | Karemo | |
VD
| 1.268 | 1.1278 | 1.104 |
Ve
| 1.133 | 1.1502 | 1.099 |
\(I_{A}^{S}\)
| 0.017 | −0.003 | 0.001 |
Testing (H0: Vd = Ve) | |||
Var (VD) | 0.003 | 0.002 | 0.002 |
p value | 0.030 | 0.680 | 0.440 |
(b) Test factor | Survey year | ||
---|---|---|---|
Asembo-1996 | Asembo-2001 | Asembo-2007 | |
VD | 1.209 | 1.183 | 1.268 |
Ve | 1.087 | 1.180 | 1.133 |
\(I_{A}^{S}\)
| 0.016 | 0.001 | 0.017 |
Testing (H0: Vd = Ve) | |||
Var (VD) | 0.002 | 0.002 | 0.003 |
p value
| 0.01 | 0.57 | 0.030 |
Genetic differentiation
(a) Locus | Area1 | Area2 | FST
| Levels of differentiation |
---|---|---|---|---|
Poly-α | Asembo | Gem | −0.003 | Low |
Karemo | 0.001 | Low | ||
Gem | Karemo | −0.004 | Low | |
Pfg377 | Asembo | Gem | −0.003 | Low |
Karemo | 0.005 | Low | ||
Gem | Karemo | −0.002 | Low | |
PfPK2 | Asembo | Gem | 0.007 | Low |
Karemo | 0.001 | Low | ||
Gem | Karemo | 0.009 | Low | |
ADL | Asembo | Gem | 0.003 | Low |
Karemo | 0.001 | Low | ||
Gem | Karemo | 0.006 | Low | |
EBP | Asembo | Gem | 0.018 | Low |
Karemo | 0.003 | Low | ||
Gem | Karemo | 0.002 | Low | |
P195 | Asembo | Gem |
0.059
| Moderate |
Karemo |
0.100
| Moderate | ||
Gem | Karemo |
0.133
| Moderate | |
TAA60 | Asembo | Gem | −0.006 | Low |
Karemo | −0.011 | Low | ||
Gem | Karemo | −0.009 | Low | |
TAA109 | Asembo | Gem | 0.032 | Low |
Karemo | 0.022 | Low | ||
Gem | Karemo | −0.002 | Low | |
ALL | Asembo | 0.021 | Low | |
Gem | 0.021 | Low | ||
Karemo | 0.021 | Low |
(b) Locus | Survey year |
F
ST
| Levels of differentiation | |
---|---|---|---|---|
Poly-α | 1996 | 2007 | 0.005 | Low |
2001 | 2007 | −0.006 | Low | |
Pfg377 | 1996 | 2007 | 0.022 | Low |
2001 | 2007 | 0.022 | Low | |
PfPK2 | 1996 | 2007 | 0.009 | Low |
2001 | 2007 | −0.001 | Low | |
ADL | 1996 | 2007 | 0.006 | Low |
2001 | 2007 | 0.009 | Low | |
EBP | 1996 | 2007 | 0.007 | Low |
2001 | 2007 | 0.013 | Low | |
P195 | 1996 | 2007 |
0.105
| Moderate |
2001 | 2007 |
0.141
| Moderate | |
TAA60 | 1996 | 2007 | 0.037 | Low |
2001 | 2007 |
0.057
| Moderate | |
TAA109 | 1996 | 2007 | 0.037 | Low |
2001 | 2007 | 0.028 | Low | |
Overall | 1996 | 2007 | 0.026 | Low |
2001 | 2007 | 0.040 | Low |